From Potential to Implementation: an innovation framework to realize the benefits of soil carbon

This chapter addresses the mismatch between existing knowledge, techniques and management methods for improved soil carbon management and deficits in its implementation. The paper gives a short overview of the evolution of the concept of soil carbon, which illustrates the interactions between scientific, industrial, technical, societal and economic change. It then goes on to show that sufficient techniques are available for the large-scale implementation of soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration. A subsequent analysis of the bottlenecks that prevent implementation identifies where issues need to be addressed in order to enable robust, integrated and sustainable SOC management strategies.

Reproduction and management of the mangrove crab Ucides cordatus (Crustacea, Brachyura, Ucididae) at Iguape, Sao Paulo, Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

EC31-133 The Management of Nebraska Soils (Revised March 1936)

The agricultural lands of this country are its greatest natural resource. History points out that nations with vast areas of good farm land are most likely to prosper and survive over long periods of time. Local communities, too, prosper and flourish in proportion to the productiveness of the surrounding land. Schools, social life, and business develop best in areas where the land is productive and properly managed and conserved. Nebraska, in common with other states, has suffered by the depletion of soil fertility. The reduction in acres in legumes and grasses, and the deplation of the organic matter in the surface soils, has likewise had its effect on the run-off of precipitation, soil blowing, and damage from drouth. In order to know what elements of fertility may become deficient and how soil fertility may be restored and maintained, we should understand the composition, character, and management of soils. In the following pages, some fundamentals of soil feritlity are given, followed later by a discussion of practical soil-management practices.

Gradients in N-cycling attributes along forestry and agricultural land-use systems are indicative of soil capacity for N supply

Indicators of soil quality associated with N-cycling were assessed under different land-use systems (native forest NAT, reforestation with Araucaria angustifolia or Pinus taeda and agricultural use AGR) to appraise the effects on the soil potential for N supply. The soil total N ranged from 2 to 4 g/kg (AGR and NAT, respectively), and the microbial biomass N ranged from 80 to 250 mg/kg, being higher in NAT and A. angustifolia, and lower in P. taeda and AGR sites. Activities of asparaginase (ca. 50200 mg NH4+-N/kg per h), glutaminase (ca. 200800 mg NH4+-N/kg per h) and urease (ca. 80200 mg NH4+-N/kg/h) were also more intense in the NAT and A. angustifolia-reforested soils, indicating greater capacity for N mineralization. The NAT and AGR soils showed the highest and the lowest ammonification rate, respectively (ca. 1 and 0.4 mg NH4+-N/kg per day), but the inverse for nitrification rate (ca. 12 and 26%), indicating a low capacity for N supply, in addition to higher risks of N losses in the AGR soil. A multivariate analysis indicated more similarity between NAT and A. angustifolia-reforested sites, whilst the AGR soil was different and associated with a higher nitrification rate. In general, reforestation with the native species A. angustifolia had less impact than reforestation with the exogenous species P. taeda, considering the soil capacity for N supply. However, AGR use caused more changes, generally decrease in indicators of N-cycling, showing a negative soil management effect on the sustainability of this agroecosystem.

Where the land is greener: Case studies and analysis of soil and water conservation initiatives worldwide

‘where the land is greener’ looks at soil and water conservation from a global perspective. In total, 42 soil and water conservation technologies and 28 approaches are described – each fully illustrated with photographs, graphs and line drawings – as applied in case studies in more than 20 countries around the world. This unique presentation of case studies draws on WOCAT’s extensive database, gathered in over 12 years of field experience. The book is intended as a prototype for national and regional compilations of sustainable land management practices a practical – instrument for making field knowledge available to decision makers. Various land use categories are covered, from crop farming to grazing and forestry. The technologies presented range from terrace-building to agroforestry systems; from rehabilitation of common pastures to conservation agriculture; from Vermiculture to water harvesting. Several of these technologies are already well-established successes – others are innovative, relatively unknown, but full of promise. Descriptions of the various technologies are complemented by studies of the ‘approaches’ that have underpinned their development and dissemination. Some of these approaches were developed specifically for individual projects; others developed and spread spontaneously in fascinating processes that offer a new perspective for development policy. In addition to the case studies, the book includes two analytical sections on the technologies and approaches under study. By identifying common elements of success, these analyses offer hope for productive conservation efforts at the local level with simultaneous global environmental benefits. Policy pointers for decision makers and donors offer a new impetus for further investment – to make the land greener.

Evaluating the usefulness of soil moisture (forecasts) in streamflow prediction for central Texas

The past decade has brought significant advancements in seasonal climate forecasting. However, water resources decision support and management continues to be based almost entirely on historical observations and does not take advantage of climate forecasts. This study builds on previous work that conditioned streamflow ensemble forecasts on observable climate indicators, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) for use in a decision support model for the Highland Lakes multi-reservoir system in central Texas operated by the Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA). In the current study, seasonal soil moisture is explored as a climate indicator and predictor of annual streamflow for the LCRA region. The main purpose of this study is to evaluate the correlation of fractional soil moisture with streamflow using the 1950-2000 Variable Infiltration Capacity (VIC) Retrospective Land Surface Data Set over the LCRA region. Correlations were determined by examining different annual and seasonal combinations of VIC modeled fractional soil moisture and observed streamflow. The applicability of the VIC Retrospective Land Surface Data Set as a data source for this study is tested along with establishing and analyzing patterns of climatology for the watershed study area using the selected data source (VIC model) and historical data. Correlation results showed potential for the use of soil moisture as a predictor of streamflow over the LCRA region. This was evident by the good correlations found between seasonal soil moisture and seasonal streamflow during coincident seasons as well as between seasonal and annual soil moisture with annual streamflow during coincident years. With the findings of good correlation between seasonal soil moisture from the VIC Retrospective Land Surface Data Set with observed annual streamflow presented in this study, future research would evaluate the application of NOAA Climate Prediction Center (CPC) forecasts of soil moisture in predicting annual streamflow for use in the decision support model for the LCRA.

Assessment of soil erosion vulnerability in rural communities in the vicinity of Motozintla de Mendoza, Chiapas, Mexico : a physical and sociological approach

Soil erosion is a natural geological phenomenon resulting from removal and transportation of soil particles by water, wind, ice and gravity. As soil erosion may be affected from cultural factors as well. The physical and social phenomena of soil erosion are researched in six communities in the upper part of Rio Grijalva Basin in the vicinity of Motozintla de Mendoza, Chiapas, Mexico. For this study, the USDA RUSLE model was applied to estimate soil erosion rates in the six communities based on the available data. The RUSLE model is based on soil properties, topography, and land cover and management factors. These results showed that estimated soil erosion rates ranged from a high of 2,050 metric ton ha-1 yr-1 to a low of 100 metric ton ha-1 yr-1. A survey concerning knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) related to soil erosion was also conducted in all 236 households in the six communities. The main findings of the KAP survey were: 69% of respondents did not know what soil erosion was, while over 40% of the population perceived that hurricanes are the biggest factors that cause soil erosion, and about 20 % of the interviewees said that the landslides are the consequences of the soil erosion. People in communities did not perceive cultural factors as important in conservation efforts for reduce vulnerability to erosion; therefore, the results obtained are suggested to be useful for informing efforts to educate stakeholders.

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT OF THE INVASIVE SPECIES CIRSIUM ARVENSE, CANADA THISTLE, AND PHRAGMITES AUSTRALIS, COMMON REED: USING ECOLOGICALLY BASED CONTROL MEASURES AT EACH STAGE OF THE INVASION PROCESS

Invasive plant species threaten natural areas by reducing biodiversity and altering ecosystem functions. They also impact agriculture by reducing crop and livestock productivity. Millions of dollars are spent on invasive species control each year, and traditionally, herbicides are used to manage invasive species. Herbicides have human and environmental health risks associated with them; therefore, it is essential that land managers and stakeholders attempt to reduce these risks by utilizing the principles of integrated weed management. Integrated weed management is a practice that incorporates a variety of measures and focuses on the ecology of the invasive plant to manage it. Roadways are high risk areas that have high incidence of invasive species. Roadways act as conduits for invasive species spread and are ideal harborages for population growth; therefore, roadways should be a primary target for invasive species control. There are four stages in the invasion process which an invasive species must overcome: transport, establishment, spread, and impact. The aim of this dissertation was to focus on these four stages and examine the mechanisms underlying the progression from one stage to the next, while also developing integrated weed management strategies. The target species were Phragmites australis, common reed, and Cisrium arvense, Canada thistle. The transport and establishment risks of P. australis can be reduced by removing rhizome fragments from soil when roadside maintenance is performed. The establishment and spread of C. arvense can be reduced by planting particular resistant species, e.g. Heterotheca villosa, especially those that can reduce light transmittance to the soil. Finally, the spread and impact of C. arvense can be mitigated on roadsides through the use of the herbicide aminopyralid. The risks associated with herbicide drift produced by application equipment can be reduced by using the Wet-Blade herbicide application system.

Assessment of soil erosion and soil conservation practices in Angereb watershed, Ethiopia: Technological and land user context

Soil conservation technologies that fit well to local scale and are acceptable to land users are increasingly needed. To achieve this at small-holder farm level, there is a need for an understanding of specific erosion processes and indicators, the land users’ knowledge and their willingness, ability and possibilities to respond to the respective problems to decide on control options. This study was carried out to assess local erosion and performance of earlier introduced conservation terraces from both technological and land users’ points of view. The study was conducted during July to August 2008 at Angereb watershed on 58 farm plots from three selected case-study catchments. Participatory erosion assessment and evaluation were implemented along with direct field measurement procedures. Our focus was to involve the land users in the action research to explore with them the effectiveness of existing conservation measures against the erosion hazard. Terrace characteristics measured and evaluated against the terrace implementation guideline of Hurni (1986). The long-term consequences of seasonal erosion indicators had often not been known and noticed by farmers. The cause and effect relationships of the erosion indicators and conservation measures have shown the limitations and gaps to be addressed towards sustainable erosion control strategies. Less effective erosion control has been observed and participants have believed the gaps are to be the result of lack of landusers’ genuine participation. The results of both local erosion observation and assessment of conservation efficacy using different aspects show the need to promote approaches for erosion evaluation and planning of interventions by the farmers themselves. This paper describes the importance of human factor involving in the empirical erosion assessment methods towards sustainable soil conservation.

Evaluation of soil salinity amelioration technologies in Timpaki, Crete

Salinization is a soil threat that adversely affects ecosystem services and diminishes soil functions in many arid and semi-arid regions. Soil salinity management depends on a range of factors, and can be complex expensive and time demanding. Besides taking no action, possible management strategies include amelioration and adaptation measures. The WOCAT Technologies Questionnaire is a standardized methodology for monitoring, evaluating and documenting sustainable land management practices through interaction with the stakeholders. Here we use WOCAT for the systematic analysis and evaluation of soil salinization amelioration measures, for the RECARE project Case Study in Greece, the Timpaki basin, a semi-arid region in south-central Crete where the main land use is horticulture in greenhouses irrigated by groundwater. Excessive groundwater abstractions have resulted in a drop of the groundwater level in the coastal part of the aquifer, thus leading to seawater intrusion and in turn to soil salinization due to irrigation with brackish water. Amelioration technologies that have already been applied in the case study by the stakeholders are examined and classified depending on the function they promote and/or improve. The documented technologies are evaluated for their impacts on ecosystem services, cost and input requirements. Preliminary results show that technologies which promote maintaining existing crop types while enhancing productivity and decreasing soil salinity such as composting, mulching, rain water harvesting and seed biopriming are preferred by the stakeholders. Further work will include result validation using qualitative approaches.

A proposed framework to operationalize ESS for the mitigation of soil threats

Despite various research activities in the last decades across the world, many challenges remain to integrate the concept of ecosystem services (ESS) in decision-making, and a coherent approach to assess and value ESS is still lacking. There are a lot of different – often context-specific – ESS frameworks with their own definitions and understanding of terms. Based on a thorough review, the EU FP7 project RECARE (www.recare-project.eu) suggests an adapted framework for ecosystem services related to soils that can be used for practical application in preventing and remediating degradation of soils in Europe. This lays the foundation for the development and selection of appropriate methods to measure, evaluate, communicate and negotiate the services we obtain from soils with stakeholders in order to improve land management. Similar to many ESS frameworks, the RECARE framework distinguishes between an ecosystem and human well-being part. As the RECARE project is focused on soil threats, this is the starting point on the ecosystem part of the framework. Soil threats affect natural capital, such as soil, water, vegetation, air and animals, and are in turn influenced by those. Within the natural capital, the RECARE framework focuses especially on soil and its properties, classified in inherent and manageable properties. The natural capital then enables and underpins soil processes, while at the same time being affected by those. Soil processes, finally, are the ecosystem’s capacity to provide services, thus they support the provision of soil functions and ESS. ESS may be utilized to produce benefits for individuals and human society. Those benefits are explicitly or implicitly valued by individuals and human society. The values placed on those benefits influence policy and decision-making and thus lead to a societal response. Individual (e.g. farmers’) and societal decision making and policy determine land management and other (human) driving forces, which in turn affect soil threats and natural capital. In order to improve ESS with Sustainable Land Management (SLM) – i.e. measures aimed to prevent or remediate soil threats, the services identified in the framework need to be “manageable” (modifiable) for the stakeholders. To this end, effects of soil threats and prevention / remediation measures are captured by key soil properties as well as through bio-physical (e.g. reduced soil loss), socio-economic (e.g. reduced workload) and socio-cultural (e.g. aesthetics) impact indicators. In order to use such indicators in RECARE, it should be possible to associate the changes in soil processes to impacts of prevention / remediation measures (SLM). This requires the indicators to be sensitive enough to small changes, but still sufficiently robust to provide evidence of the change and attribute it to SLM.

Actions of the International Union of Soil Science towards a global agenda for the sustainable use of soils

In a multi-level stakeholder approach the international level is of primordial importance not only in terms of legal frameworks, but also in terms of scientific analysis of the needs, options and constraints, as well as related to monitoring and evaluation systems. The Working Group on 'International Actions for the Sustainable Use of Soils' (IASUS) of the International Union of Soil Science (IUSS) identified a number of issues and measures in preparation of the 17thWorld Congress of Soil Science held in Bangkok, Thailand, in August 2002, and prepared a resolution in support of a 'global agenda for the sustainable use of soils', which was adopted on 21st August 2002 on the closing day of the congress.

Operationalizing ecosystem services for the mitigation of soil threats: A proposed framework

Despite numerous research efforts over the last decades, integrating the concept of ecosystem servicesinto land management decision-making continues to pose considerable challenges. Researchers havedeveloped many different frameworks to operationalize the concept, but these are often specific to acertain issue and each has their own definitions and understandings of particular terms. Based on acomprehensive review of the current scientific debate, the EU FP7 project RECARE proposes an adaptedframework for soil-related ecosystem services that is suited for practical application in the preventionand remediation of soil degradation across Europe. We have adapted existing frameworks by integratingcomponents from soil science while attempting to introduce a consistent terminology that is understand-able to a variety of stakeholders. RECARE aims to assess how soil threats and prevention and remediationmeasures affect ecosystem services. Changes in the natural capital’s properties influence soil processes,which support the provision of ecosystem services. The benefits produced by these ecosystem servicesare explicitly or implicitly valued by individuals and society. This can influence decision- and policymak-ing at different scales, potentially leading to a societal response, such as improved land management.The proposed ecosystem services framework will be applied by the RECARE project in a transdisciplinaryprocess. It will assist in singling out the most beneficial land management measures and in identifyingtrade-offs and win–win situations resulting from and impacted by European policies. The framework thusreflects the specific contributions soils make to ecosystem services and helps reveal changes in ecosystemservices caused by soil management and policies impacting on soil. At the same time, the framework issimple and robust enough for practical application in assessing soil threats and their management withstakeholders at various levels.

Mineral nitrogen from KCl extractions of soil from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment up to 15cm depth, year 2008)

As an estimate of plant-available N, this data set contains measurements of inorganic nitrogen (NO3-N and NH4-N, the sum of which is termed mineral N or Nmin) determined by extraction with 1 M KCl solution of soil samples from the main experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. Soil sampling and analysis: Five soil cores (diameter 0.01 m) were taken at a depth of 0 to 0.15 m of the mineral soil from each of the experimental plots in March and October 2008. In October 2008, also the plots of the management experiment, that altered mowing frequency and fertilized subplots (see further details below) were sampled. Samples of the soil cores per plot (subplots in case of the management experiment) were pooled during each sampling campaign. NO3-N and NH4-N concentrations were determined by extraction of soil samples with 1 M KCl solution and were measured in the soil extract with a Continuous Flow Analyzer (CFA, AutoAnalyzer, Seal, Burgess Hill, United Kingdom).