Cuelure but not zingerone make the sex pheromone of male Bactrocera tryoni (Tephritidae: Diptera) more attractive to females

In tephritid fruit flies of the genus Bactrocera Macquart, a group of plant derived compounds (sensu amplo ‘male lures’) enhance the mating success of males that have consumed them. For flies responding to the male lure methyl eugenol, this is due to the accumulation of chemicals derived from the male lure in the male rectal gland (site of pheromone synthesis) and the subsequent release of an attractive pheromone. Cuelure, raspberry ketone and zingerone are a second, related group of male lures to which many Bactrocera species respond. Raspberry ketone and cuelure are both known to accumulate in the rectal gland of males as raspberry ketone, but it is not known if the emitted male pheromone is subsequently altered in complexity or is more attractive to females. Using Bactrocera tryoni as our test insect, and cuelure and zingerone as our test chemicals, we assess: (i) lure accumulation in the rectal gland; (ii) if the lures are released exclusively in association with the male pheromone; and (iii) if the pheromone of lure-fed males is more attractive to females than the pheromone of lure-unfed males. As previously documented, we found cuelure was stored in its hydroxyl form of raspberry ketone, while zingerone was stored largely in an unaltered state. Small but consistent amounts of raspberry ketone and β-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-propionic acid were also detected in zingerone-fed flies. Males released the ingested lures or their analogues, along with endogenous pheromone chemicals, only during the dusk courtship period. More females responded to squashed rectal glands extracted from flies fed on cuelure than to glands from control flies, while more females responded to the pheromone of calling cuelure-fed males than to control males. The response to zingerone treatments in both cases was not different from the control. The results show that male B. tryoni release ingested lures as part of their pheromone blend and, at least for cuelure, this attracts more females.

Effect of rabbit antiserum to ovine LH on reproductive organs in male hamsters and guinea-pigs

Administration of rabbit antiserum to ovine luteinizing hormone to immature hamsters and guinea-pigs resulted in a significant decrease in the weights of testes, seminal vesicle and ventral prostate. The author wishes to thank Prof. N.R. Moudgal for his interest and Family Planning Foundation for financial assistance.

Responses of fruit flies (Tephritidae: Dacinae) to novel male attractants in north Queensland, Australia, and improved lures for some pest species

Male fruit fly attractants, cue-lure and methyl eugenol (ME), have been successfully used for the last 50 years in the monitoring and control of Dacini fruit flies (Bactrocera and Dacus species). However, over 50% of Dacini are non-responsive to either lure, including some pest species. A new lure, zingerone, has been found to weakly attract cue- and ME-responsive species in Malaysia. In Australia it attracted a weakly cue-responsive minor pest Bactrocera jarvisi (Tryon) and three non-responsive' species. Similar compounds were tested in Queensland and attracted cue- and ME-responsive species and two non-responsive' species. In this study, 14 novel compounds, including raspberry ketone formate (RKF) (Melolure) and zingerone, were field tested in comparison with cue-lure and ME at 17 sites in north Queensland. The most attractive novel lures were isoeugenol, methyl-isoeugenol, dihydroeugenol and zingerone. Several non-responsive' species responded to the new lures: Bactrocera halfordiae (Tryon), a species of some market access concern, was most attracted to isoeugenol; B.barringtoniae (Tryon), B.bidentata (May) and B.murrayi (Perkins) responded to isoeugenol, methyl-isoeugenol and dihydroeugenol; two new species of Dacus responded to zingerone. Bactrocera kraussi (Hardy), a cue-responsive minor pest in north Queensland, was significantly more attracted to isoeugenol than cue-lure. The cue-responsive D.absonifacies (May) and D.secamoneaeDrew were significantly more attracted to zingerone than cue-lure. Bactrocera yorkensisDrew & Hancock, a ME-responsive species was significantly more attracted to isoeugenol, methyl-isoeugenol and dihydroeugenol than ME. The preferential response to RKF or cue-lure was species specific. Six species were significantly more attracted to RKF, including the pests B.tryoni (Froggatt), B.frauenfeldi (Schiner) and minor pest B.bryoniae (Tryon); eight species were significantly more attracted to cue-lure including the pest B.neohumeralis (Hardy). These findings have significance in the search for optimal male lures for pest species elsewhere in the world.

A model for mammalian male determination based on a passive Y chromosome

A model is suggested for mammalian male determination based on interactions postulated to occur among an autosomal repressor gene, an X-linked male-determining gene termed Tdx, and multiple copies of certain DNA sequences on the Y chromosome that do not code for any protein. The repressor, synthesised in limited amounts, has higher affinity for the Y-linked sequences than for Tdx and its affinity for Tdx is greater than that of RNA polymerase. In XY cells the Y effectively binds all available repressor, permitting transcription of Tdx to occur. In XX cells, since competition from the Y-linked high-affinity sequences is absent, the repressor binds to Tdx and prevents transcription. As a result of this competition between Tdx and the Y-linked high-affinity sites for limiting concentrations of the autosomal repressor, the product of the Tdx gene (TDX) is synthesized in the male but not in the female. It is suggested that in determination of the male sex, the role of the Y chromosome is to serve as a sink for the Tdx repressor. The proposed interactions provide a plausible explanation for the genetic properties of several anomalies of sexual development in mouse, man, and other mammals. The model suggests that the postulated multiple, highaffinity sequences on the Y chromosome of the mouse are included among the DNA sequences referred to as the Sxr-Bkm sequences.

Use of norethisterone and estradiol in mini doses as a contraceptive in the male : Efficacy studies in the adult male bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata)

Administration of norethisterone (NET) or NET + estradiol benzoate using an Alzet minipump or as once-a-month intramuscular injection of their depot forms, NET-enanthate (NET-EN) and estradiol valerate (E-val), resulted in azoospermia in all monkeys (n = 13) within 60 to 150 days of treatment. Although addition of depot form of testosterone (T, 20 mg/month) to the regimen restored the behavioral response typical of a normal male, it did not reverse the azoospermic state. Serum T (heightened nocturnal) levels were significantly reduced (> 85%, p < 0.001) in all the treated groups. Evidence for blockade in spermatogenesis following treatment was obtained by DNA flow cytometry. Following withdrawal of treatment, the T level was restored to normalcy within 15 days but 120 days more were required for the animals to exhibit normal sperm counts. In conclusion, the efficacy of once-a-month injection of relatively low doses of NET-EN + E-Val to bring about azoospermia in monkeys, in a relatively short time, has been demonstrated. As the results are uniform and reproducible, it appears desirable that this steroid regimen be tested in man for its contraceptive efficacy.

Prospects of riboflavin carrier protein (RCP) as an antifertility vaccine in male and female mammals

Riboflavin carrier protein (RCP) is obligatorily involved in yolk deposition of the vitamin, riboflavin, in the developing oocyte of the hen. The production of this protein is inducible by oestrogen. It is evolutionarily conserved in terms of its physicochemical, immunological and functional characteristics. It is the prime mediator of vitamin supply to the developing fetus in mammals, including primates. Passive immunoneutralization of the protein terminates pregnancy in rats. Active immunization of rats and bonnet monkeys with avian RCP prevents pregnancy without causing any adverse physiological effects of the mother in terms of her vitamin status, reproductive cycles or reproductive-endocrine profile. Denatured, linearized RCP is more effective in eliciting neutralizing antibodies capable of interfering with embryonic viability either before or during peri-implantation stages. Two defined stretches of sequential epitopes, one located at the N-terminus and the other at the C-terminus of the protein have been identified. Active immunization with either of these epitopes conjugated with diptheria toxoid curtails pregnancy in rats and monkeys. Immunohistochemical localization of RCP on ovulated oocytes and early embryos shows that the antibodies cause degeneration only of early embryos. RCP is produced intra-testicularly and becomes localized on acrosomal surface of mammalian spermatozoa. Active immunization of male rats and monkeys with denatured RCP markedly reduces fertility by impairing the fertilizing potential of spermatozoa. These findings suggest that RCP, or its defined fragments, could be a novel, first generation vaccine for regulating fertility in both the sexes.

A male-specific nuclease-resistant chromatin fraction in the mealybug Planococcus lilacinus

In mealybugs, chromatin condensation is related to both genomic imprinting and sex determination. The paternal chromosomal complement is condensed and genetically inactive in sons but not in daughters. During a study of chromatin organization in Planococcus lilacinus, digestion with micrococcal nuclease showed that 3% to 5% of the male genome is resistant to the enzyme. This Nuclease Resistant Chromatin (NRC) apparently has a nucleosomal organization. Southern hybridization of genomic DNA suggests that NRC sequences are present in both sexes and occur throughout the genome. Cloned NRC DNA is A+T-rich with stretches of adenines similar to those present in mouse alpha-satellite sequences. NRC DNA also contains sequence motifs that are typically associated with the nuclear matrix. Salt-fractionation experiments showed that NRC sequences are matrix associated. These observations are discussed in relation to the unusual cytological features of mealybug chromosomes, including the possible existence of multiple centres of inactivation.

Changes in testicular function following specific deprivation of LH in the adult male rabbit

Sexually mature male rabbits actively immunized against highly purified ovine LH (oLH) were used as a model system to study the effects of endogenous LH deprivation (and therefore testosterone) on spermatogenesis as well as pituitary FSH secretion. Immunization against oLH generated antibody titres capable of cross-reacting and neutralizing rabbit LH and this resulted in a significant reduction (P<0.01) in serum testosterone levels by 2-4 weeks of immunization. A significant increase in circulating FSH concentration (from a basal level of similar to 1 ng to 60-100 ng/ml; P<0.01) was observed within 4-6 weeks of immunization, perhaps a consequence of the negative feedback effect of the lack of testosterone. The effect of LH deprivation on spermatogenesis assessed by DNA flow cytometry and histological analyses of testicular biopsy tissue revealed that lack of testosterone primarily results in a rapid reduction and complete absence of round (1C) and elongated (HC) spermatids. The immediate effect of LH/testosterone deprivation thus appears to be at the step of meiotic transformation of primary spermatocytes (4C) to 1C. A significant reduction (>80%; P<0.01) in the 4C population and a relative accumulation (>90%; P<0.01) in spermatogonia (2C) was also observed, suggesting a need for testosterone during the transformation of 2C to 1C. In all but one of the rabbits, both qualitative and quantitative recovery in spermatogenesis occurred during the recovery phase, even at a time when only a marginal increase in serum testosterone (compared with the preimmunization) levels was observed as a result of a rapid decline in the cross-reactive antibody titres. These results clearly show that LH/testosterone deprivation in addition to primarily affecting the meiotic step also regulates the conversion of 2C to 4C during spermatogenesis.

Older male and female drivers in car-dependent settings: How much do they use other modes, and do they compensate for reduced driving to maintain mobility?

Among the societal and health challenges of population ageing is the continued transport mobility of older people who retain their driving licence, especially in highly car-dependent societies. While issues surrounding loss of a driving licence have been researched, less attention has been paid to variations in physical travel by mode among the growing proportion of older people who retain their driving licence. It is unclear how much they reduce their driving with age, the degree to which they replace driving with other modes of transport, and how this varies by age and gender. This paper reports research conducted in the state of Queensland, Australia, with a sample of 295 older drivers (>60 years). Time spent driving is considerably greater than time spent as a passenger or walking across age groups and genders. A decline in travel time as a driver with increasing age is not redressed by increases in travel as a passenger or pedestrian. The patterns differ by gender, most likely reflecting demographic and social factors. Given the expected considerable increase in the number of older women in particular, and their reported preference not to drive alone, there are implications for policies and programmes that are relevant to other car-dependent settings. There are also implications for the health of older drivers, since levels of walking are comparatively low.

'Ladd traps' as a visual trap for male and female Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) is Australia's major horticultural insect pest, yet monitoring females remains logistically difficult. We trialled the ‘Ladd trap’ as a potential female surveillance or monitoring tool. This trap design is used to trap and monitor fruit flies in countries other (e.g. USA) than Australia. The Ladd trap consists of a flat yellow panel (a traditional ‘sticky trap’), with a three dimensional red sphere (= a fruit mimic) attached in the middle. We confirmed, in field-cage trials, that the combination of yellow panel and red sphere was more attractive to B. tryoni than the two components in isolation. In a second set of field-cage trials, we showed that it was the red-yellow contrast, rather than the three dimensional effect, which was responsible for the trap's effectiveness, with B. tryoni equally attracted to a Ladd trap as to a two-dimensional yellow panel with a circular red centre. The sex ratio of catches was approximately even in the field-cage trials. In field trials, we tested the traditional red-sphere Ladd trap against traps for which the sphere was painted blue, black or yellow. The colour of sphere did not significantly influence trap efficiency in these trials, despite the fact the yellow-panel/yellow-sphere presented no colour contrast to the flies. In 6 weeks of field trials, over 1500 flies were caught, almost exactly two-thirds of them being females. Overall, flies were more likely to be caught on the yellow panel than the sphere; but, for the commercial Ladd trap, proportionally more females were caught on the red sphere versus the yellow panel than would be predicted based on relative surface area of each component, a result also seen the field-cage trial. We determined that no modification of the trap was more effective than the commercially available Ladd trap and so consider that product suitable for more extensive field testing as a B. tryoni research and monitoring tool.