Legal Framework for Cross-Regional Networks: The Case of Services and Migration

Paper prepared by Marion Panizzon and Charlotte Sieber-Gasser for the International Conference on the Political Economy of Liberalising Trade in Services, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 14-15 June 2010 Recent literature has shed light on the economic potential of cross-border networks. These networks, consisting of expatriates and their acquaintances from abroad and at home, provide the basis for the creation of cross-border value added chains and therewith the means for turning brain drain into brain circulation. Both aspects are potentially valuable for economic growth in the developing world. Unilateral co-development policies operating through co-funding of expatriate business ventures, but also bilateral agreements liberalising circular migration for a limited set of per-sons testify to the increasing awareness of governments about the potential, which expatriate networks hold for economic growth in developing countries. Whereas such punctual efforts are valuable, viewed from a long term perspective, these top-down, government mandated Diaspora stimulation programs, will not replace, this paper argues, the market-driven liberalisation of infrastructure and other services in developing countries. Nor will they carry, in the case of circular labour migration, the political momentum to liberalise labour market admission for those non-nationals, who will eventually emerge as the future transnational entrepreneurs. It will take a combination of mode 4 and infrastructure services openings-cum regulation for countries at both sides of the spectrum to provide the basis and precondition for transnational business and entrepreneurial networks to emerge and translate into cross-border, value added production chains. Two key issues are of particular relevance in this context: (i) the services sector, especially in infrastructure, tends to suffer from inefficiencies, particularly in developing countries, and (ii) labour migration, a highly complex issue, still faces disproportionately rigid barriers despite well-documented global welfare gains. Both are hindrances for emerging markets to fully take advantage of the potential of these cross-border networks. Adapting the legal framework for enhancing the regulatory and institutional frameworks for services trade, especially in infrastructure services sectors (ISS) and labour migration could provide the incentives necessary for brain circulation and strengthen cross-border value added chains by lowering transaction costs. This paper analyses the shortfalls of the global legal framework – the shallow status quo of GATS commitments in ISS and mode 4 particular – in relation to stimulating brain circulation and the creation of cross-border value added chains in emerging markets. It highlights the necessity of adapting the legal framework, both on the global and the regional level, to stimulate broader and wider market access in the four key ISS sectors (telecommunications, transport, professional and financial services) in developing countries, as domestic supply capacity, global competitiveness and economic diversification in ISS sectors are necessary for mobilising expatriate re-turns, both physical and virtual. The paper argues that industrialised, labour receiving countries need to offer mode 4 market access to wider categories of persons, especially to students, graduate trainees and young professionals from abroad. Further-more, free trade in semi-finished products and mode 4 market access are crucial for the creation of cross-border value added chains across the developing world. Finally, the paper discusses on the basis of a case study on Jordan why the key features of trade agreements, which promote circular migration and the creation of cross-border value added chains, consist of trade liberalisation in services and liberal migration policies.

Socio-economic characterisation of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) growers and date value chains in Pakistan

Increasing food production to feed its rapidly growing population is a major policy goal of Pakistan. The production of traditional staples such as rice (Oryza sativa L.) and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) has been intensified in many regions, but not in remote, drought-ridden areas. In these arid, marginal environments dates and their by-products are an option to complement staples given their high nutritive value and storability. To fill knowledge gaps about the role of date palm in the household (HH) income of rural communities and the structure of date value chains, this project studied date palm production across six districts in four provinces of Pakistan. During 2012–2013 a total of 170 HHs were interviewed with a structured questionnaire using a snowball sampling approach. The results showed that most of the HH were headed by males (99 %) who were married (74 %) and often illiterate (40 %). Agriculture was the main occupation of date palm growers (56 %), while a few coupled agricultural activities with business (17 %) or extra-farm employment opportunities (government 9 %; private sector 8 %). Date sales contributed >50 % to the total income of 39 % of HH and 90–100 % to 24 % of HH. Overall farmers grew a total of 39 date palm cultivars and cultivated an average of 409 ± 559 mature date palms. The majority of the respondents sold dates to commission agents (35 %), contractors (22 %) and wholesalers (21 %), while 28 % of HH cultivated date palms only for self-consumption. Date palm growers had only limited knowledge about high quality date cultivars, optimized farm management and about effective post-harvest conservation. Changes in extension and marketing efforts are needed to allow farmers to better exploit value chains in date thereby reaping higher benefits from improved market access to secure their often marginal income.

Revisión del uso de los medicamentos biosimilares vs. biológicos: implicaciones para la salud en Colombia.

Este documento tiene como objetivo describir las implicaciones para la salud con el uso de medicamentos biosimilares en comparación con los medicamentos biológicos en Colombia. Así mismo, describir el contexto normativo acerca del uso de medicamentos biosimilares, las recomendaciones y lineamientos sobre seguridad y efectividad del uso de medicamentos Biosimilares y Biológicos, partiendo de sus diferencias biomoleculares. Para esto, se desarrolló una revisión documental electrónica y manual de la literatura en bases de datos, revistas y libros limitada a términos MeSH. La selección de los artículos incluyo documentos completos publicados en revistas indexadas de los últimos 10 años, en español e inglés; la información recolectada se organizó para la construcción del presente documento. Concluyendo, se encontró que las patentes de muchos medicamentos biológicos han vencido o están próximas a caducar y varios biosimilares están desarrollándose y comercializándose incluso en países sin regulaciones estrictas. Los biosimilares nunca podrán ser iguales al original por su complejidad molecular, por ello debemos integrarlos a los sistemas de farmacovigilancia mejorando trazabilidad e identificando su origen mientras se establecen denominaciones comunes distinguibles. La evidencia actual sugiere que la regulación de medicamentos biosimilares debe ser evaluada y armonizada en todo el mundo.

Construcción de un índice de calidad ocupacional (ICO) para el análisis de la inserción profesional de los graduados universitarios = Building an employment quality index (EQI) to analyse graduates’ access to the labour market

En este trabajo se propone la construcción de un índice de calidad ocupacional (ICO) a partir de los datos de la Encuesta de Inserción Laboral de los Graduados de las Universidades Catalanas realizada por la Agencia para la Calidad del Sistema Universitario de Catalunya (AQU), que ha de permitir un mejor análisis de la información que proporciona la encuesta y facilitar su comparación con estudios similares. La encuesta se realiza tres años después de la graduación. En este artículo, se utiliza la segunda encuesta realizada el año 2005 entre 11.456 graduados (52,63%) de la promoción 2001 (AQU, 2005, Serra-Ramoneda, 2007). El índice se ha elaborado a partir de los indicadores objetivos ‘tipo y duración del contrato laboral’, ‘retribución económica’, ‘adecuación entre la formación universitaria y el empleo’ a los que se otorga una puntuación ponderada según las respuestas dadas por los graduados. La suma de las puntuaciones se matiza con un coeficiente derivado del indicador subjetivo ‘satisfacción con el trabajo en general’. A partir de la información proporcionada por el índice, se realiza un análisis comparativo del nivel de calidad ocupacional que han logrado los graduados de áreas de conocimiento, ámbitos de trabajo, ramas de actividad y ubicaciones territoriales del empleo diferentes. Los resultados obtenidos permiten observar que entre los graduados catalanes los siguientes hechos son buenos predictores de la calidad de la ocupación: haber estudiado una carrera que no sea de Humanidades, ser un hombre, haber desempeñado durante la carrera un trabajo relacionado con los estudios, estar ocupado en la construcción, en instituciones financieras o en servicios a empresas, haber tenido algún tipo de movilidad por motivos de trabajo, trabajar fuera de Cataluña y hacerlo en empresas grandes, especialmente con más de 500 trabajadores. Finalmente, se presentan algunas reflexiones y propuestas que pueden resultar de interés para la orientación de los estudiantes y la planificación universitaria

Barriers faced by the Brazilian business community to access the United States market system

Trade history between Brazil and the United States is long and complicated but it is only in recent years that the trade balance has become more equal in terms of both imports and exports. As Brazil continues to establish its position in the world economy and expand its export market it is only natural that it seeks to increase exports to its single largest trading partner, the United States, and maintain the market share already established. In order to achieve success in these regards Brazil must have a deep understanding of the American political economy system. Part of this entails understanding barriers that must be overcome by Brazilian businesses to access United States markets, particularly the access of certain products at the industry level.

Access to Latin American and Caribbean exports in the U.S. market 2001-2002

Access to Latin American and Caribbean Exports in the United States market, 2001-2002 is the seventh annual report released by the ECLAC Washington Office, updating information contained in previous reports. Its aim is to compile and make available information on trade inhibiting measures that Latin American and Caribbean exports encounter in the United States market. This report needs to be placed in the context of a trade relationship between the United States and Latin America and the Caribbean, which has grown strongly over the years to the benefit of both economies. Moreover, it must be viewed against the background of the commitment to achieve the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), through which barriers to trade and investment will be progressively eliminated. In this regard, it is hoped that this report will further contribute to transparency and the elimination of obstacles to the free flow of trade in the Americas. The classification of trade inhibiting measures follows the definition used in the U.S. Trade Representatives (USTR) yearly publication National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers. Based on this structure, the report focuses on the three areas of greatest relevance for Latin America and the Caribbean: Imports Policies (e.g., tariffs and other import charges, quantitative restrictions, import licensing, customs barriers). Standards, testing, labeling and certification (e.g., unnecessarily restrictive application of phytosanitary standards). Export subsidies (e.g., export financing on preferential terms and agricultural export subsidies that displace other foreign exports in third country markets).

Access of Latin American and Caribbean exports in the U.S. market 2002-2003

Access to Latin American and Caribbean Exports in the United States market, 2001-2002 is the eighth annual report released by the ECLAC Washington Office, updating information contained in previous reports. Its aim is to compile and make available information on trade inhibiting measures that Latin American and Caribbean exports encounter in the United States market. This report needs to be placed in the context of a trade relationship between the United States and Latin America and the Caribbean, which has grown strongly over the years to the benefit of both economies. Moreover, it must be viewed against the background of the commitment to achieve the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), through which barriers to trade and investment will be progressively eliminated. In this regard, it is hoped that this report will further contribute to transparency and the elimination of obstacles to the free flow of trade in the Americas. The classification of trade inhibiting measures follows the definition used in the U.S. Trade Representatives (USTR) yearly publication National Trade Estimate Report on Foreign Trade Barriers. Based on this structure, the report focuses on the three areas of greatest relevance for Latin America and the Caribbean: Imports Policies (e.g., tariffs and other import charges, quantitative restrictions, import licensing, customs barriers). Standards, testing, labeling and certification (e.g., unnecessarily restrictive application of phytosanitary standards). Export subsidies (e.g., export financing on preferential terms and agricultural export subsidies that displace other foreign exports in third country markets).

Access of Latin American and Caribbean exports to the US market 2003-2004

Includes bibliography

Access of Latin American and Caribbean exports to the US market 2004-2005

Includes bibliography

Did the least developed countries benefit from duty-free quota-free access to the Japanese market?

Countries classified as least developed countries (LDCs) were granted duty-free quota-free (DFQF) access to the Japanese market. This study examines the impact of that access and finds that, in general, it did not benefit the LDCs. The construction of concordance tables for Japan's 9 digit tariff line codes enables analysis at the tariff line level, which overcomes a possible aggregation bias. The exogenous nature of DFQF access mitigates the endogeneity problem. Various estimation models, including the triple difference estimator, show that in general the LDCs did not benefit from DFQF access to the Japanese market. The total value of imports from LDCs has been increasing, but the imports granted both zero tariffs and substantial preference margins over non-LDC countries were not successful. These findings suggest that for LDCs the tariff barrier is a relatively small obstacle: Trade is affected more strongly by other factors, such as infrastructure, nontariff barriers, geographic distance, and cultural differences.