Educating teachers in child protection : lessons from research

This paper examines research about child protection preparation of teachers. Such research indicates that the nature of the training required to "do the public good" would differ markedly from that which is currently on offer in most teacher education courses. Whilst teachers have the potential to operate as frontline respondents in combating child abuse, the limitations of their training create a situation in which they are "worried, lacking in confidence and stressed about their ability to comply with mandatory reporting legislation" (Bluett, 2002). The consequences to the community are substantial: not only are there disincentives for teachers to participate in child protection roles and the increased likelihood of poor quality reporting, but children subjected to abuse may be unable to access protective services via the school system. The paper distills the findings of recent studies to identify design parameters for effective teacher preparation in child protection. The paper concludes that a program informed by research has the potential to produce enhanced outcomes for children, teachers and the broader community.

The effect of intra- versus post-interview feedback during simulated practice interviews about child abuse

Objective
This study compared the effectiveness of two types of instructor feedback (relative to no feedback) on investigative interviewers’ ability to adhere to open-ended questions in simulated practice interviews about child abuse.
Method
In one condition, feedback was provided at the end of each practice interview. In the other, the instructor stopped the interviewer at various stages during the practice interviews to provide feedback. The relative effect of these conditions was examined by measuring interviewers’ performance in a standardized mock interview paradigm immediately prior to, immediately after, and 12 weeks after the practice and feedback sessions.
Results
Prior to and 12 weeks after the practice sessions were administered, there was no significant difference in participants’ adherence to open-ended questions irrespective of the nature of the feedback, or whether feedback was received. At the immediate post-practice assessment interval, however, the participants who received feedback during the practice interviews performed better (M proportion of open-ended questions = .85, SD = .13) than the other participants (post-interview feedback M = .67, SD = .18, p < .001; no feedback M = .56, SD = .16, p < .001). This heightened use of open-ended questions was associated with a greater tendency among the interviewees to provide abuse-related details in response to open-ended questions (M = .91, SD = .11) compared to the other participants (post-interview feedback M = .77, SD = .15, p < .05; no feedback M = .69, SD = .16, p = .001).
Conclusions
Different types of feedback can be differentially effective in training child abuse investigators to adhere to open-ended questions. The benefits of any training program, however, are likely to be short-lived without ongoing practice.
Practice implications
A single study compared the relative effectiveness of two types of instructor feedback (relative to no feedback) on investigative interviewers’ ability to adhere to open-ended questions in simulated practice interviews about child abuse. This research is relevant to trainers of investigative interviewers because there is currently large variability in the type of feedback employed in training programs. This study is one of the first to empirically demonstrate that different types of feedback may be differentially effective in improving the performance of investigative interviewers.

On the relationship between child abuse and eating pathology

The thesis examined variables that could potentially mediate the relationship between child abuse and eating pathology. The relationship was found to be intricate and multi-faceted with important gender differences. The most novel finding was that drive for muscularity was significantly associated with child abuse in males and in females. The portfolio presents four adult case studies, each with different experiences of child abuse. It aims to examine if the core tenets of neurobiological theory of trauma can be useful to understand the lasting effects of child abuse on adult functioning.

A controlled analysis of professionals' contemporaneous notes of interviews about alleged child abuse

Objective : The current study investigated (under optimal conditions) the accuracy and completeness of professionals’ contemporaneous written notes of child abuse interviews.
Method : Participants included 107 experienced child abuse investigators who were all trained to adhere to best-practice interview guidelines and who routinely took notes as records of interviews. The interviews documented for this study were read live for 15 min duration, and at a pace of 2.2 words (on average)/s. The professionals’ notes of the interviews were analyzed for completeness and accuracy. Key outcome measures were the prevalence and discernability of the questions (i.e., whether the structure of questions was recorded accurately) as well as the child responses.
Results : Despite the omission of 39% of abuse-related details, recording of content details was clearly prioritized over interviewer questions. This was revealed irrespective of the measure of note taking quality or the quality of the interview being recorded. Of the various layout styles employed, scrutiny of interviewer questions was maximized by: (a) using symbols or spacing to delineate questions and responses, (b) capturing the first two words of a question, and (c) using abbreviations.
Conclusions : Although note taking could potentially improve with further research, training and instruction, this form of documentation does not provide full scrutiny of the interview process, even under optimal conditions.
Practice implications : Electronic recording is strongly recommended for all interviews, especially considering global concerns about interviewers’ adherence to best-practice interview guidelines. If notes continue to be used as a record of interview, further research and training are urgently warranted to improve note taking competency.

Implicit theories and personality patterns in child-victim sex offenders

Research has suggested that child sex offenders hold thematically distinct cognitive distortions, which Ward and Keenan (1999) call Implicit Theories. The aim of this preliminary study was to investigate the relationship between offenders’ Implicit Theories and their personality related cognitions. The variables were measured using the Implicit Theory Questionnaire and Millon’s (1990) MCMI-III personality scales. Subjects were 28 male sex offenders against children serving a custodial sentence in New Zealand, who elected to participate in a treatment program. A majority of participants had personality scale scores that reached the clinical threshold. Results found that dependant, depressive and schizoidal personality patterns significantly correlated with Implicit Theories. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Identification of five fundamental implicit theories underlying cognitive distortions in child abusers : a preliminary study

Qualitative analysis of interviews with 22 child abusers found strong evidence for Ward and Keenan's (1999) proposal that there are five implicit theories in child abusers that account for the majority of their cognitive distortions/thinking errors. These implicit theories are: Child as a sexual being where children are perceived as being able to and wanting to engage in sexual activity with adults and also are not be harmed by such sexual contact; Nature of harm where the offender perceives that sexual activity does not cause harm (and may in fact be beneficial) to the child; Entitlement where the child abuser perceives that he is superior and more important than others: and hence is able to have sex with whoever, and whenever, he wants; Dangerous world where the offender perceives that that others are abusive and rejecting and he must fight to regain control; and Uncontrollable where the offender perceives the world as uncontrollable and hence he believes that circumstances are outside of his control. There was no evidence for any other type of implicit theory. Results of the study also indicated that there was a significant difference in terms of the endorsement of the Dangerous world implicit theory between participants reporting a history of child sexual abuse and those who did not. Offenders against male victims were significantly more likely to endorse the Child as a sexual being and Dangerous world implicit theories compared to men who had offended against female children.

Improving the quality of professionals’ contemporaneous notes taken during interviews about alleged child abuse

The current study explored the effectiveness of note-taking instructions to increase the completeness and accuracy of professionals’ contemporaneous written notes of child abuse interviews. Police members had their base-line note-taking assessed before receiving brief instructions focusing on layout style, abbreviations, and question codes. Participants’ note-taking was reassessed immediately post-instruction and again at follow-up, 4 weeks later. Instructions increased the number of questions that participants recorded and the information that they recorded about question structure. These increases in question information did not occur at the expense of witness response information. Instructions encouraged participants to use more abbreviations and question codes and to use a clearer layout style to differentiate questions and responses. Instructing professionals in simple note-taking strategies immediately increased the completeness and accuracy of their notes. However, electronic recordings remain the most effective method of ensuring complete and accurate interview notes.

The relationship between investigative interviewing experience and open-ended question usage

We present three studies examining the role of prior job experience in interviewing and interviewers’ ability to learn open-ended questions during a training program. We predicted a negative relationship such that more experienced interviewers would perform worse after training than less experienced interviewers, and that (irrespective of baseline performance) the more experienced interviewers would improve the least during training. These predictions were made for two reasons. First, specific questions are commonly used in the workplace (i.e. open-ended questioning constitutes new learning). Second, experience in the use of specific questions potentially interferes with newly learned open-ended questions. Overall, our predictions were supported across different participant samples (including police officers specialized in child abuse investigation and social workers from the child protection area), time delays, and modes of training. The results highlight the need for investment in ongoing investigative interviewing training commencing early during professionals’ careers, prior to the establishment of long-term habits in the use of specific questions.

Medical evidence in child sexual assault cases

Purpose – Previous studies suggest that the presence of medical evidence is rare in child sexual assault (CSA) cases, and if present at all, such evidence is unlikely to identify a specific assailant. This study aims to examine the role medical evidence plays in criminal cases of CSA. Specifically, the prevalence of medical evidence in CSA cases, its impact on decisions to prosecute CSA cases, as well as its effect on conviction rates are examined.

Design/methodology/approach – A systematic literature review was conducted on the impact of medical evidence in criminal child sexual abuse (CSA) cases.

Findings – The results of the review suggest medical evidence increases the likelihood of prosecution; however the impact of medical evidence on conviction rate is equivocal.

Research limitations/implications – The implications of these findings for legal and psychological practice, government policy and future areas for academic research are discussed.

Originality/value – To the authors' knowledge, no other review has systematically examined the role of medical evidence on the prosecution and conviction of CSA cases.

What themes trigger investigative interviewers to ask specific questions when interviewing children?

Recent research has established that investigative interviewers have difficulty adhering to openended questions and instead ask specific questions when interviewing children about abuse. The current study aims to examine the themes in abuse-related interviews that trigger investigators to ask specific questions. Twenty police officers who were authorised to conduct investigative interviews with children completed a mock interview with an expert in child abuse interviewing who had been trained to play the role of an abused child. During the interview, the officers were stopped by a researcher and asked to reflect on why they had asked specific questions. Overall, the results revealed five areas where the officers deviated from open-ended questions. These related to: (1) the identity of the alleged offender; (2) the meaning of terms used by the child to describe genitals; (3) whether or not penetration occurred; (4) the offender's intent and motives; and (5) the timing of the abuse and where it occurred. Each of these themes is discussed, along with the implications for trainers and researchers in child abuse interviewing.

Prosecutors' perceptions of the utility of 'relationship' evidence in sexual abuse trials

For successful prosecution of sex offences, defined elements that comprise each charge (such as the acts that occurred and offenders’ identities) need to be established beyond reasonable doubt. This study explored the potential benefit (from a prosecution perspective) of eliciting another type of evidence; evidence regarding the relationship between the victim and perpetrator that may explain the victim’s responses.

Fourteen prosecutors representing every major Australian jurisdiction participated in individual interviews or a focus group where they were asked to reflect on the perceived relevance of relationship evidence in sex offence trials, and the potential impact of this evidence on court process and outcomes.

All prosecutors gave strong support for the premise of including relationship evidence in victim and witness statements, as well as in suspect interviews; however, this type of evidence was not routinely being included in interviews or admitted in trials.

The majority of the discussion centred on:

Sentencing in child sexual assault cases: factors influencing judicial decision-making

To date, there has been limited examination of variables that influence sentencing in child sexual abuse cases. This study examines the extent to which offence characteristics (such as the number of offences, number and age of victims), the behaviour and perceived credibility of the victim impact upon both sentence length and the setting of earliest parole dates. Analyses conducted using data from 66 adjudicated cases of child sexual assault from the County Court of Victoria, Australia revealed that longer sentences were handed down to offenders who had perpetrated multiple offences, or who had committed offences against younger children. Lower levels of victim credibility were associated with shorter sentences and earlier parole dates for offenders, which were also associated with the presence of more harmful behavioural indicators of abuse. The findings are discussed regarding the importance of presenting evidence about the behaviour of victims following sexual abuse in criminal trials. © 2013 Copyright National Organisation for the Treatment of Abusers.

The decision-making processes adopted by rurally located mandated professionals when child abuse or neglect is suspected

The reporting of suspected child abuse and neglect is a mandated role of medical doctors, nurses, police and teachers in Victoria, Australia. This paper reports on a research study that sought to explicate how mandated professionals working in rural Victorian contexts identify a child/ren at risk and the decisions they make subsequently.

Child abuse: a painful reality behind closed doors

Child abuse violates the most basic rights of children and adolescents. As documented in the main article of this issue of Challenges, child abuse is a massive, daily and underreported problem that affects the population of Latin America and the Caribbean. It manifests itself in different forms, including physical and psychological aggression, rape and sexual abuse, and takes place in the home, in neighbourhoods, at school, at work and in legal and child protection institutions. Abuse tends to be transmitted from one generation to the next, and the individuals most often responsible are parents or other adult members of the household