970 resultados para International Coffee Organization (1962- )
Resumo:
This study investigates the relationship between cigarette smoking and adolescents in Ecuador, South America. Using the Social Learning Theory as a basis, the cross-sectional survey focuses attention on such social influences as the smoking habits of family members and peers as well as, the role of cigarette advertisements. Actual use prevalence, access to cigarettes and knowledge and attitudes about smoking are also obtained.^ The survey was conducted in both urban and rural areas, with 50 schools in 40 different communities participating. Two thousand four hundred and fifty-seven adolescents aged 9 to 15 years completed a self-administered questionnaire. This part of the study was conducted in collaboration with the international health organization Amigos de las Americas (AMIGOS). Staff assigned to the AMIGOS Ecuador projects worked with local health and education officials to implement the cross-sectional survey in the field.^ The key informant survey and subsequent policy review were designed to illuminate the social, cultural and institutional environment for anti-smoking activities and interventions in Ecuador. Key individuals involved with this issue on both national and local levels were interviewed. A review of past legislative efforts and present anti-smoking laws was also conducted.^ The current smoking prevalence among the study population was 8.6 percent. Findings from the cross-sectional survey revealed significant positive associations between the smoking habits of siblings and peers and the smoking behavior of the adolescents surveyed. Significant age and gender differences were also found in association with several different variables.^ The policy review found an unfavorable environment for anti-smoking efforts. Several factors contribute to this including, most importantly, lack of funding and lack of public support. The present anti-smoking law is often vague and lacks important provisions, such as a prohibition on selling tobacco products to minors.^ Together, the two surveys provide comprehensive information for the purpose of designing smoking prevention interventions. Using the results from the two surveys, recommendations for intervention are proposed. ^
Resumo:
El artculo recupera y analiza las visiones que organismos internacionales como la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas y la Organizacin Internacional del Trabajo construyen en torno de dos fenmenos : el trabajo infantil y el trabajo juvenil. La importancia de focalizar en los discursos de estos organismos reside en que contribuyen a conformar los enfoques desde los cuales a nivel gubernamental se abordan tales problemticas. En este marco, el presente artculo se propone revisar qu diagnsticos construyen sobre estos fenmenos, desde qu matrices conceptuales los analizan y qu propuestas de polticas desarrollan. Para ello se utiliza como estrategia metodolgica el anlisis documental : se utilizan como fuentes una serie de documentos oficiales publicados por los organismos en los ltimos quince aos
Resumo:
El artculo recupera y analiza las visiones que organismos internacionales como la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas y la Organizacin Internacional del Trabajo construyen en torno de dos fenmenos : el trabajo infantil y el trabajo juvenil. La importancia de focalizar en los discursos de estos organismos reside en que contribuyen a conformar los enfoques desde los cuales a nivel gubernamental se abordan tales problemticas. En este marco, el presente artculo se propone revisar qu diagnsticos construyen sobre estos fenmenos, desde qu matrices conceptuales los analizan y qu propuestas de polticas desarrollan. Para ello se utiliza como estrategia metodolgica el anlisis documental : se utilizan como fuentes una serie de documentos oficiales publicados por los organismos en los ltimos quince aos
Resumo:
El artculo recupera y analiza las visiones que organismos internacionales como la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas y la Organizacin Internacional del Trabajo construyen en torno de dos fenmenos : el trabajo infantil y el trabajo juvenil. La importancia de focalizar en los discursos de estos organismos reside en que contribuyen a conformar los enfoques desde los cuales a nivel gubernamental se abordan tales problemticas. En este marco, el presente artculo se propone revisar qu diagnsticos construyen sobre estos fenmenos, desde qu matrices conceptuales los analizan y qu propuestas de polticas desarrollan. Para ello se utiliza como estrategia metodolgica el anlisis documental : se utilizan como fuentes una serie de documentos oficiales publicados por los organismos en los ltimos quince aos
Resumo:
During Leg ANT-XXIII/9 on the 31st March 2007 the German research vessel Polarstern mapped a significant bathymetric feature with its swath sonar system at the north-west margin of the Kerguelen Plateau. Due to the fact, that the feature was discovered just a month after the third IPY 2007/2008 has started, it was named after Graf Wilczek who, together with Carl Weyprecht, had promoted the first IPY. The undersea feature name proposal was officialy accepted by the GEBCO Sub-Committee on Undersea Feature Names (SCUFN) at its 20th meeting in late July and was added to the GEBCO Gazetteer of UFN (http://www.iho.shom.fr/COMMITTEES/GEBCO/SCUFN/scufn_intro.htm). ______________ Graf Hans Wilczek (Notation of the name from the book of Wilczek's daughter Elisabeth Kinsky- Wilczek). The Austrian naval hero Tegetthoff in 1871 planned an expedition to the southern hemisphere. The geophysicist G. Neumayer (1826-1909) already was selected as its chief scientist. Also the naval officer Carl Weyprecht (1838-1881) and the mountaineer Julius Payer (1841-1915) were to participate. Because of the sudden death of Tegettoff the project came to a halt and eventually was cancelled. By support of the well known geographer August Petermann (1822-1878) Weyprecht and Payer made a voyage into the Barents Sea which made them believe having seen the "open polar sea". An additional undertaking to confirm and to extend the find was obvious. At this stage of the affair count Hans Wilczek (1837-1922) got involved. He not only fostered a new expedition with a considerable sum of money, but he participated in commanding a support vessel to Novaya Zemlya. Wilczek managed to get home but the expedition vessel under Weyprecht's command became imprisoned in the pack for two years and at least had to be abandoned. After an adventurous trip back to civilisation Weyprecht changed his mind in what he considered the best way of polar research. Together with Wilczek in 1875 he started the promotion of international station-based polar exploration - the IPY was born. Wilczek guaranteed the constitution of an Austrian station on Novaya Zemlya and was ready to winter over there personally. Because of several political and other obstructions the beginning of the IPY was delayed till 1882. Wilczek's friend Weyprecht had passed away already. The command of the Austrian station, eventually erected on Jan Mayen, was given to Emil v. Wohlgemuth (1843-1896). Wilczek financed the main part of the Austrian IPY participation. Wilczek is described as honest and popular. On the one hand acquainted with the most prominent persons of his days, he respected everybody and had many relationships with scientists and artists. There is a kind of autobiography under the title: Hans Wilczek erzhlt seinen Enkeln Erinnerungen aus seinem Leben (Hans Wilczek tells his grandchildren reminiscences from his life); edited by his daughter Elisabeth Kinsky-Wilczek, Graz 1933, 502 p. The book is available in an English version: Happy Retrospect - the Reminiscences of Count Wilczek 1837-1922, Bell and Sons, London 1934, 295 p.
Resumo:
The knowledge about processes concerning perception and understanding is of paramount importance for designing means of communication like maps and charts. This is especially the case, if one does not want to lose sight of the map-user and if map-design is to be orientated along the map-users needs and preferences in order to improve the cartographic product's usability. A scientific approach to visualization can help to achieve useable results. The insights achieved by such an approach can lead to modes of visualization that are superior to those, which have seemingly proved their value in praxis - so-called "bestpractices" -, concerning their utility and efficiency. This thesis shows this by using the example of visualizing the limits of bodies of waters in the Southern Ocean. After making some introductorily remarks on the chosen mode of problem-solution in chapter one, which simultaneously illustrate the flow of work while working on the problem, in chapter two the relevant information concerning the drawing of limits in the Southern Ocean is outlined. Chapter 3 builds the theoretical framework, which is a multidisciplinary approach to representation. This theoretical framework is based on "How Maps Work" by the American Cartographer MacEachren (1995/2004). His "scientific approach to visualization" is amended and adjusted by the knowledge gained from recent findings of the social sciences where necessary. So, the approach suggested in this thesis represents a synergy of psychology, sociology, semiotics, linguistics, communication theory and cartography. It follows the tradition of interdisciplinary research getting over the boundaries of a single scientific subject. The achieved holistic approach can help to improve the usability of cartographic products. It illustrates on the one hand those processes taking place while perceiving and recognizing cartographic information - so-called bottom-up-processes. On the other hand it illuminates the processes which happen during understanding this information in so-called top-down-processes. Bottom-up- and top-down-processes are interdependent and inseparably interrelated and therefore cannot be understood without each other. Regarding aspects of usability the approach suggested in this thesis strongly focuses on the map-user. This is the reason why the phenomenon of communication gains more weight than in MacEachren's map-centered approach. Because of this, in chapter 4 a holistic approach to communication is developed. This approach makes clear that only the map-user can evaluate the usability of a cartographic product. Only if he can extract the information relevant for him from the cartographical product, it is really useable. The concept of communication is well suited to conceive that. In case of the visualization of limits of bodies of water in the Southern Ocean, which is not complex enough to illustrate all results of the theoretical considerations, it is suggested to visualize the limits with red lines. This suggestion deviates from the commonly used mode of visualization. So, this thesis shows how theory is able to ameliorate praxis. Chapter 5 leads back to the task of fixing limits of the bodies of water in the area of concern. A convention by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) states that those limits should be drawn by using meridians, parallels, rhumb lines and bathymetric data. Based on the available bathymetric data both a representation and a process model are calculated, which should support the drawing of the limits. The quality of both models, which depends on the quality of the bathymetric data at hand, leads to the decision that the representation model is better suited to support the drawing of limits.
Resumo:
This paper shows the Gini Coefficient of the Spanish bunkering, for the Spanish Port System 1960 to the year 2010 with the aim to describe the Spanish bunkering in these periods and propose future strategies. The stage of bunkering must change due to new regulations of marine fuels but to predict the future you must know the past On December 17 came into force on community standard marine fuels. After a complicated negotiation with the industry moves forward a project that is fully compliant with the guidelines of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and limiting the sulphur and particulate matter of marine fuels used by ships calling or transit through maritime space of the European Union. The impact of a possible extension at European level of the Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECA) as they are introduced in the Annex VI of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL) adopted by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO).
Resumo:
El 10 de octubre de 2008 la Organizacin Martima Internacional (OMI) firm una modificacin al Anexo VI del convenio MARPOL 73/78, por la que estableci una reduccin progresiva de las emisiones de xidos de azufre (SOx) procedentes de los buques, una reduccin adicional de las emisiones de xidos de nitrgeno (NOx), as como lmites en las emisiones de dixido de Carbono (CO2) procedentes de los motores marinos y causantes de problemas medioambientales como la lluvia cida y efecto invernadero. Centrndonos en los lmites sobre las emisiones de azufre, a partir del 1 de enero de 2015 esta normativa obliga a todos los buques que naveguen por zonas controladas, llamadas Emission Control Area (ECA), a consumir combustibles con un contenido de azufre menor al 0,1%. A partir del 1 de enero del ao 2020, o bien del ao 2025, si la OMI decide retrasar su inicio, los buques debern consumir combustibles con un contenido de azufre menor al 0,5%. De igual forma que antes, el contenido deber ser rebajado al 0,1%S, si navegan por el interior de zonas ECA. Por su parte, la Unin Europea ha ido ms all que la OMI, adelantando al ao 2020 la aplicacin de los lmites ms estrictos de la ley MARPOL sobre las aguas de su zona econmica exclusiva. Para ello, el 21 de noviembre de 2013 firm la Directiva 2012 / 33 / EU como adenda a la Directiva de 1999. Tengamos presente que la finalidad de estas nuevas leyes es la mejora de la salud pblica y el medioambiente, produciendo beneficios sociales, en forma de reduccin de enfermedades, sobre todo de tipo respiratorio, a la vez que se reduce la lluvia cida y sus nefastas consecuencias. La primera pregunta que surge es cul es el combustible actual de los buques y cul ser el que tengan que consumir para cumplir con esta Regulacin? Pues bien, los grandes buques de navegacin internacional consumen hoy en da fuel oil con un nivel de azufre de 3,5%. Existen fueles con un nivel de azufre de 0,5%S? Como hemos concluido en el captulo 4, para las empresas petroleras, la produccin de fuel oil como combustible marino es tratada como un subproducto en su cesta de productos refinados por cada barril de Brent, ya que la demanda de fuel respecto a otros productos est bajando y adems, el margen de beneficio que obtienen por la venta de otros productos petrolferos es mayor que con el fuel. As, podemos decir que las empresas petroleras no estn interesadas en invertir en sus refineras para producir estos fueles con menor contenido de azufre. Es ms, en el caso de que alguna compaa decidiese invertir en producir un fuel de 0,5%S, su precio debera ser muy similar al del gasleo para poder recuperar las inversiones empleadas. Por lo tanto, el nico combustible que actualmente cumple con los nuevos niveles impuestos por la OMI es el gasleo, con un precio que durante el ao 2014 estuvo a una media de 307 USD/ton ms alto que el actual fuel oil. Este mayor precio de compra de combustible impactar directamente sobre el coste del trasporte martimo. La entrada en vigor de las anteriores normativas est suponiendo un reto para todo el sector martimo. Ante esta realidad, se plantean diferentes alternativas con diferentes implicaciones tcnicas, operativas y financieras. En la actualidad, son tres las alternativas con mayor aceptacin en el sector. La primera alternativa consiste en no hacer nada y simplemente cambiar el tipo de combustible de los grandes buques de fuel oil a gasleo. Las segunda alternativa es la instalacin de un equipo scrubber, que permitira continuar con el consumo de fuel oil, limpiando sus gases de combustin antes de salir a la atmsfera. Y, por ltimo, la tercera alternativa consiste en el uso de Gas Natural Licuado (GNL) como combustible, con un precio inferior al del gasleo. Sin embargo, an existen importantes incertidumbres sobre la evolucin futura de precios, operacin y mantenimiento de las nuevas tecnologas, inversiones necesarias, disponibilidad de infraestructura portuaria e incluso el desarrollo futuro de la propia normativa internacional. Estas dudas hacen que ninguna de estas tres alternativas sea unnime en el sector. En esta tesis, tras exponer en el captulo 3 la regulacin aplicable al sector, hemos investigado sus consecuencias. Para ello, hemos examinado en el captulo 4 si existen en la actualidad combustibles marinos que cumplan con los nuevos lmites de azufre o en su defecto, cul sera el precio de los nuevos combustibles. Partimos en el captulo 5 de la hiptesis de que todos los buques cambian su consumo de fuel oil a gasleo para cumplir con dicha normativa, calculamos el incremento de demanda de gasleo que se producira y analizamos las consecuencias que este hecho tendra sobre la produccin de gasleos en el Mediterrneo. Adicionalmente, calculamos el impacto econmico que dicho incremento de coste producir sobre sector exterior de Espaa. Para ello, empleamos como base de datos el sistema de control de trfico martimo Authomatic Identification System (AIS) para luego analizar los datos de todos los buques que han hecho escala en algn puerto espaol, para as calcular el extra coste anual por el consumo de gasleo que sufrir el transporte martimo para mover todas las importaciones y exportaciones de Espaa. Por ltimo, en el captulo 6, examinamos y comparamos las otras dos alternativas al consumo de gasleo -scrubbers y propulsin con GNL como combustible- y, finalmente, analizamos en el captulo 7, la viabilidad de las inversiones en estas dos tecnologas para cumplir con la regulacin. En el captulo 5 explicamos los numerosos mtodos que existen para calcular la demanda de combustible de un buque. La metodologa seguida para su clculo ser del tipo bottom-up, que est basada en la agregacin de la actividad y las caractersticas de cada tipo de buque. El resultado est basado en la potencia instalada de cada buque, porcentaje de carga del motor y su consumo especfico. Para ello, analizamos el nmero de buques que navegan por el Mediterrneo a lo largo de un ao mediante el sistema AIS, realizando fotos del trfico martimo en el Mediterrneo y reportando todos los buques en navegacin en das aleatorios a lo largo de todo el ao 2014. Por ltimo, y con los datos anteriores, calculamos la demanda potencial de gasleo en el Mediterrneo. Si no se hace nada y los buques comienzan a consumir gasleo como combustible principal, en vez del actual fuel oil para cumplir con la regulacin, la demanda de gasoil en el Mediterrneo aumentar en 12,12 MTA (Millones de Toneladas Anuales) a partir del ao 2020. Esto supone alrededor de 3.720 millones de dlares anuales por el incremento del gasto de combustible tomando como referencia el precio medio de los combustibles marinos durante el ao 2014. El anterior incremento de demanda en el Mediterrneo supondra el 43% del total de la demanda de gasleos en Espaa en el ao 2013, incluyendo gasleos de automocin, biodiesel y gasleos marinos y el 3,2% del consumo europeo de destilados medios durante el ao 2014. Podr la oferta del mercado europeo asumir este incremento de demanda de gasleos? Europa siempre ha sido excedentaria en gasolina y deficitaria en destilados medios. En el ao 2009, Europa tuvo que importar 4,8 MTA de Norte Amrica y 22,1 MTA de Asia. Por lo que, este aumento de demanda sobre la ya limitada capacidad de refino de destilados medios en Europa incrementar las importaciones y producir tambin aumentos en los precios, sobre todo del mercado del gasleo. El sector sobre el que ms impactar el incremento de demanda de gasleo ser el de los cruceros que navegan por el Mediterrneo, pues consumirn un 30,4% de la demanda de combustible de toda flota mundial de cruceros, lo que supone un aumento en su gasto de combustible de 386 millones de USD anuales. En el caso de los RoRos, consumiran un 23,6% de la demanda de la flota mundial de este tipo de buque, con un aumento anual de 171 millones de USD sobre su gasto de combustible anterior. El mayor incremento de coste lo sufrirn los portacontenedores, con 1.168 millones de USD anuales sobre su gasto actual. Sin embargo, su consumo en el Mediterrneo representa slo el 5,3% del consumo mundial de combustible de este tipo de buques. Estos nmeros plantean la incertidumbre de si semejante aumento de gasto en buques RoRo har que el transporte martimo de corta distancia en general pierda competitividad sobre otros medios de transporte alternativos en determinadas rutas. De manera que, parte del volumen de mercancas que actualmente transportan los buques se podra trasladar a la carretera, con los inconvenientes medioambientales y operativos, que esto producira. En el caso particular de Espaa, el extra coste por el consumo de gasleo de todos los buques con escala en algn puerto espaol en el ao 2013 se cifra en 1.717 millones de EUR anuales, segn demostramos en la ltima parte del captulo 5. Para realizar este clculo hemos analizado con el sistema AIS a todos los buques que han tenido escala en algn puerto espaol y los hemos clasificado por distancia navegada, tipo de buque y potencia. Este encarecimiento del transporte martimo ser trasladado al sector exterior espaol, lo cual producir un aumento del coste de las importaciones y exportaciones por mar en un pas muy expuesto, pues el 75,61% del total de las importaciones y el 53,64% del total de las exportaciones se han hecho por va martima. Las tres industrias que se vern ms afectadas son aquellas cuyo valor de mercanca es inferior respecto a su coste de transporte. Para ellas los aumentos del coste sobre el total del valor de cada mercanca sern de un 2,94% para la madera y corcho, un 2,14% para los productos minerales y un 1,93% para las manufacturas de piedra, cemento, cermica y vidrio. Las mercancas que entren o salgan por los dos archipilagos espaoles de Canarias y Baleares sern las que se vern ms impactadas por el extra coste del transporte martimo, ya que son los puertos ms alejados de otros puertos principales y, por tanto, con ms distancia de navegacin. Sin embargo, esta no es la nica alternativa al cumplimiento de la nueva regulacin. De la lectura del captulo 6 concluimos que las tecnologas de equipos scrubbers y de propulsin con GNL permitirn al buque consumir combustibles ms baratos al gasoil, a cambio de una inversin en estas tecnologas. Sern los ahorros producidos por estas nuevas tecnologas suficientes para justificar su inversin? Para contestar la anterior pregunta, en el captulo 7 hemos comparado las tres alternativas y hemos calculado tanto los costes de inversin como los gastos operativos correspondientes a equipos scrubbers o propulsin con GNL para una seleccin de 53 categoras de buques. La inversin en equipos scrubbers es ms conveniente para buques grandes, con navegacin no regular. Sin embargo, para buques de tamao menor y navegacin regular por puertos con buena infraestructura de suministro de GNL, la inversin en una propulsin con GNL como combustible ser la ms adecuada. En el caso de un tiempo de navegacin del 100% dentro de zonas ECA y bajo el escenario de precios visto durante el ao 2014, los proyectos con mejor plazo de recuperacin de la inversin en equipos scrubbers son para los cruceros de gran tamao (100.000 tons. GT), para los que se recupera la inversin en 0,62 aos, los grandes portacontenedores de ms de 8.000 TEUs con 0,64 aos de recuperacin y entre 5.000-8.000 TEUs con 0,71 aos de recuperacin y, por ltimo, los grandes petroleros de ms de 200.000 tons. de peso muerto donde tenemos un plazo de recuperacin de 0,82 aos. La inversin en scrubbers para buques pequeos, por el contrario, tarda ms tiempo en recuperarse llegando a ms de 5 aos en petroleros y quimiqueros de menos de 5.000 toneladas de peso muerto. En el caso de una posible inversin en propulsin con GNL, las categoras de buques donde la inversin en GNL es ms favorable y recuperable en menor tiempo son las ms pequeas, como ferris, cruceros o RoRos. Tomamos ahora el caso particular de un buque de productos limpios de 38.500 toneladas de peso muerto ya construido y nos planteamos la viabilidad de la inversin en la instalacin de un equipo scrubber o bien, el cambio a una propulsin por GNL a partir del ao 2015. Se comprueba que las dos variables que ms impactan sobre la conveniencia de la inversin son el tiempo de navegacin del buque dentro de zonas de emisiones controladas (ECA) y el escenario futuro de precios del MGO, HSFO y GNL. Para realizar este anlisis hemos estudiado cada inversin, calculando una batera de condiciones de mrito como el payback, TIR, VAN y la evolucin de la tesorera del inversor. Posteriormente, hemos calculado las condiciones de contorno mnimas de este buque en concreto para asegurar una inversin no slo aceptable, sino adems conveniente para el naviero inversor. En el entorno de precios del 2014 -con un diferencial entre fuel y gasleo de 264,35 USD/ton- si el buque pasa ms de un 56% de su tiempo de navegacin en zonas ECA, conseguir una rentabilidad de la inversin para inversores (TIR) en el equipo scrubber que ser igual o superior al 9,6%, valor tomado como coste de oportunidad. Para el caso de inversin en GNL, en el entorno de precios del ao 2014 -con un diferencial entre GNL y gasleo de 353,8 USD/ton FOE- si el buque pasa ms de un 64,8 % de su tiempo de navegacin en zonas ECA, conseguir una rentabilidad de la inversin para inversores (TIR) que ser igual o superior al 9,6%, valor del coste de oportunidad. Para un tiempo en zona ECA estimado de un 60%, la rentabilidad de la inversin (TIR) en scrubbers para los inversores ser igual o superior al 9,6%, el coste de oportunidad requerido por el inversor, para valores del diferencial de precio entre los dos combustibles alternativos, gasleo (MGO) y fuel oil (HSFO) a partir de 244,73 USD/ton. En el caso de una inversin en propulsin GNL se requerira un diferencial de precio entre MGO y GNL de 382,3 USD/ton FOE o superior. As, para un buque de productos limpios de 38.500 DWT, la inversin en una reconversin para instalar un equipo scrubber es ms conveniente que la de GNL, pues alcanza rentabilidades de la inversin (TIR) para inversores del 12,77%, frente a un 6,81% en el caso de invertir en GNL. Para ambos clculos se ha tomado un buque que navegue un 60% de su tiempo por zona ECA y un escenario de precios medios del ao 2014 para el combustible. Po otro lado, las inversiones en estas tecnologas a partir del ao 2025 para nuevas construcciones son en ambos casos convenientes. El naviero deber prestar especial atencin aqu a las caractersticas propias de su buque y tipo de navegacin, as como a la infraestructura de suministros y vertidos en los puertos donde vaya a operar usualmente. Si bien, no se ha estudiado en profundidad en esta tesis, no olvidemos que el sector martimo debe cumplir adems con las otras dos limitaciones que la regulacin de la OMI establece sobre las emisiones de xidos de Nitrgeno (NOx) y Carbono (CO2) y que sin duda, requerirn adicionales inversiones en diversos equipos. De manera que, si bien las consecuencias del consumo de gasleo como alternativa al cumplimiento de la Regulacin MARPOL son ciertamente preocupantes, existen alternativas al uso del gasleo, con un aumento sobre el coste del transporte martimo menor y manteniendo los beneficios sociales que pretende dicha ley. En efecto, como hemos demostrado, las opciones que se plantean como ms rentables desde el punto de vista financiero son el consumo de GNL en los buques pequeos y de lnea regular (cruceros, ferries, RoRos), y la instalacin de scrubbers para el resto de buques de grandes dimensiones. Pero, por desgracia, estas inversiones no llegan a hacerse realidad por el elevado grado de incertidumbre asociado a estos dos mercados, que aumenta el riesgo empresarial, tanto de navieros como de suministradores de estas nuevas tecnologas. Observamos as una gran reticencia del sector privado a decidirse por estas dos alternativas. Este elevado nivel de riesgo slo puede reducirse fomentando el esfuerzo conjunto del sector pblico y privado para superar estas barreras de entrada del mercado de scrubbers y GNL, que lograran reducir las externalidades medioambientales de las emisiones sin restar competitividad al transporte martimo. Creemos as, que los mismos organismos que aprobaron dicha ley deben ayudar al sector naviero a afrontar las inversiones en dichas tecnologas, as como a impulsar su investigacin y promover la creacin de una infraestructura portuaria adaptada a suministros de GNL y a descargas de vertidos procedentes de los equipos scrubber. Deberan adems, prestar especial atencin sobre las ayudas al sector de corta distancia para evitar que pierda competitividad frente a otros medios de transporte por el cumplimiento de esta normativa. Actualmente existen varios programas europeos de incentivos, como TEN-T o Marco Polo, pero no los consideramos suficientes. Por otro lado, la Organizacin Martima Internacional debe confirmar cuanto antes si retrasa o no al 2025 la nueva bajada del nivel de azufre en combustibles. De esta manera, se eliminara la gran incertidumbre temporal que actualmente tienen tanto navieros, como empresas petroleras y puertos para iniciar sus futuras inversiones y poder estudiar la viabilidad de cada alternativa de forma individual. ABSTRACT On 10 October 2008 the International Maritime Organization (IMO) signed an amendment to Annex VI of the MARPOL 73/78 convention establishing a gradual reduction in sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions from ships, and an additional reduction in nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from marine engines which cause environmental problems such as acid rain and the greenhouse effect. According to this regulation, from 1 January 2015, ships travelling in an Emission Control Area (ECA) must use fuels with a sulphur content of less than 0.1%. From 1 January 2020, or alternatively from 2025 if the IMO should decide to delay its introduction, all ships must use fuels with a sulphur content of less than 0.5%. As before, this content will be 0.1%S for voyages within ECAs. Meanwhile, the European Union has gone further than the IMO, and will apply the strictest limits of the MARPOL directives in the waters of its exclusive economic zone from 2020. To this end, Directive 2012/33/EU was issued on 21 November 2013 as an addendum to the 1999 Directive. These laws are intended to improve public health and the environment, benefiting society by reducing disease, particularly respiratory problems. The first question which arises is: what fuel do ships currently use, and what fuel will they have to use to comply with the Convention? Today, large international shipping vessels consume fuel oil with a sulphur level of 3.5%. Do fuel oils exist with a sulphur level of 0.5%S? As we conclude in Chapter 4, oil companies regard marine fuel oil as a by-product of refining Brent to produce their basket of products, as the demand for fuel oil is declining in comparison to other products, and the profit margin on the sale of other petroleum products is higher. Thus, oil companies are not interested in investing in their refineries to produce low-sulphur fuel oils, and if a company should decide to invest in producing a 0.5%S fuel oil, its price would have to be very similar to that of marine gas oil in order to recoup the investment. Therefore, the only fuel which presently complies with the new levels required by the IMO is marine gas oil, which was priced on average 307 USD/tonne higher than current fuel oils during 2014. This higher purchasing price for fuel will have a direct impact on the cost of maritime transport. The entry into force of the above directive presents a challenge for the entire maritime sector. There are various alternative approaches to this situation, with different technical, operational and financial implications. At present three options are the most widespread in the sector. The first option consists of doing nothing and simply switching from fuel oil to marine gas oil in large ships. The second option is installing a scrubber system, which would enable ships to continue consuming fuel oil, cleaning the combustion gases before they are released to the atmosphere. And finally, the third option is using Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), which is priced lower than marine gas oil, as a fuel. However, there is still significant uncertainty on future variations in prices, the operation and maintenance of the new technologies, the investments required, the availability of port infrastructure and even future developments in the international regulations themselves. These uncertainties mean that none of these three alternatives has been unanimously accepted by the sector. In this Thesis, after discussing all the regulations applicable to the sector in Chapter 3, we investigate their consequences. In Chapter 4 we examine whether there are currently any marine fuels on the market which meet the new sulphur limits, and if not, how much new fuels would cost. In Chapter 5, based on the hypothesis that all ships will switch from fuel oil to marine gas oil to comply with the regulations, we calculate the increase in demand for marine gas oil this would lead to, and analyse the consequences this would have on marine gas oil production in the Mediterranean. We also calculate the economic impact such a cost increase would have on Spain's external sector. To do this, we also use the Automatic Identification System (AIS) system to analyse the data of every ship stopping in any Spanish port, in order to calculate the extra cost of using marine gas oil in maritime transport for all Spain's imports and exports. Finally, in Chapter 6, we examine and compare the other two alternatives to marine gas oil, scrubbers and LNG, and in Chapter 7 we analyse the viability of investing in these two technologies in order to comply with the regulations. In Chapter 5 we explain the many existing methods for calculating a ship's fuel consumption. We use a bottom-up calculation method, based on aggregating the activity and characteristics of each type of vessel. The result is based on the installed engine power of each ship, the engine load percentage and its specific consumption. To do this, we analyse the number of ships travelling in the Mediterranean in the course of one year, using the AIS, a marine traffic monitoring system, to take snapshots of marine traffic in the Mediterranean and report all ships at sea on random days throughout 2014. Finally, with the above data, we calculate the potential demand for marine gas oil in the Mediterranean. If nothing else is done and ships begin to use marine gas oil instead of fuel oil in order to comply with the regulation, the demand for marine gas oil in the Mediterranean will increase by 12.12 MTA (Millions Tonnes per Annum) from 2020. This means an increase of around 3.72 billion dollars a year in fuel costs, taking as reference the average price of marine fuels in 2014. Such an increase in demand in the Mediterranean would be equivalent to 43% of the total demand for diesel in Spain in 2013, including automotive diesel fuels, biodiesel and marine gas oils, and 3.2% of European consumption of middle distillates in 2014. Would the European market be able to supply enough to meet this greater demand for diesel? Europe has always had a surplus of gasoline and a deficit of middle distillates. In 2009, Europe had to import 4.8 MTA from North America and 22.1 MTA from Asia. Therefore, this increased demand on Europe's already limited capacity for refining middle distillates would lead to increased imports and higher prices, especially in the diesel market. The sector which would suffer the greatest impact of increased demand for marine gas oil would be Mediterranean cruise ships, which represent 30.4% of the fuel demand of the entire world cruise fleet, meaning their fuel costs would rise by 386 million USD per year. ROROs in the Mediterranean, which represent 23.6% of the demand of the world fleet of this type of ship, would see their fuel costs increase by 171 million USD a year. The greatest cost increase would be among container ships, with an increase on current costs of 1.168 billion USD per year. However, their consumption in the Mediterranean represents only 5.3% of worldwide fuel consumption by container ships. These figures raise the question of whether a cost increase of this size for RORO ships would lead to short-distance marine transport in general becoming less competitive compared to other transport options on certain routes. For example, some of the goods that ships now carry could switch to road transport, with the undesirable effects on the environment and on operations that this would produce. In the particular case of Spain, the extra cost of switching to marine gas oil in all ships stopping at any Spanish port in 2013 would be 1.717 billion EUR per year, as we demonstrate in the last part of Chapter 5. For this calculation, we used the AIS system to analyse all ships which stopped at any Spanish port, classifying them by distance travelled, type of ship and engine power. This rising cost of marine transport would be passed on to the Spanish external sector, increasing the cost of imports and exports by sea in a country which relies heavily on maritime transport, which accounts for 75.61% of Spain's total imports and 53.64% of its total exports. The three industries which would be worst affected are those with goods of lower value relative to transport costs. The increased costs over the total value of each good would be 2.94% for wood and cork, 2.14% for mineral products and 1.93% for manufactured stone, cement, ceramic and glass products. Goods entering via the two Spanish archipelagos, the Canary Islands and the Balearic Islands, would suffer the greatest impact from the extra cost of marine transport, as these ports are further away from other major ports and thus the distance travelled is greater. However, this is not the only option for compliance with the new regulations. From our readings in Chapter 6 we conclude that scrubbers and LNG propulsion would enable ships to use cheaper fuels than marine gas oil, in exchange for investing in these technologies. Would the savings gained by these new technologies be enough to justify the investment? To answer this question, in Chapter 7 we compare the three alternatives and calculate both the cost of investment and the operating costs associated with scrubbers or LNG propulsion for a selection of 53 categories of ships. Investing in scrubbers is more advisable for large ships with no fixed runs. However, for smaller ships with regular runs to ports with good LNG supply infrastructure, investing in LNG propulsion would be the best choice. In the case of total transit time within an ECA and the pricing scenario seen in 2014, the best payback periods on investments in scrubbers are for large cruise ships (100,000 gross tonnage), which would recoup their investment in 0.62 years; large container ships, with a 0.64 year payback period for those over 8,000 TEUs and 0.71 years for the 5,000-8,000 TEU category; and finally, large oil tankers over 200,000 deadweight tonnage, which would recoup their investment in 0.82 years. However, investing in scrubbers would have a longer payback period for smaller ships, up to 5 years or more for oil tankers and chemical tankers under 5,000 deadweight tonnage. In the case of LNG propulsion, a possible investment is more favourable and the payback period is shorter for smaller ship classes, such as ferries, cruise ships and ROROs. We now take the case of a ship transporting clean products, already built, with a deadweight tonnage of 38,500, and consider the viability of investing in installing a scrubber or changing to LNG propulsion, starting in 2015. The two variables with the greatest impact on the advisability of the investment are how long the ship is at sea within emission control areas (ECA) and the future price scenario of MGO, HSFO and LNG. For this analysis, we studied each investment, calculating a battery of merit conditions such as the payback period, IRR, NPV and variations in the investors' liquid assets. We then calculated the minimum boundary conditions to ensure the investment was not only acceptable but advisable for the investor shipowner. Thus, for the average price differential of 264.35 USD/tonne between HSFO and MGO during 2014, investors' return on investment (IRR) in scrubbers would be the same as the required opportunity cost of 9.6%, for values of over 56% ship transit time in ECAs. For the case of investing in LNG and the average price differential between MGO and LNG of 353.8 USD/tonne FOE in 2014, the ship must spend 64.8% of its time in ECAs for the investment to be advisable. For an estimated 60% of time in an ECA, the internal rate of return (IRR) for investors equals the required opportunity cost of 9.6%, based on a price difference of 244.73 USD/tonne between the two alternative fuels, marine gas oil (MGO) and fuel oil (HSFO). An investment in LNG propulsion would require a price differential between MGO and LNG of 382.3 USD/tonne FOE. Thus, for a 38,500 DWT ship carrying clean products, investing in retrofitting to install a scrubber is more advisable than converting to LNG, with an internal rate of return (IRR) for investors of 12.77%, compared to 6.81% for investing in LNG. Both calculations were based on a ship which spends 60% of its time at sea in an ECA and a scenario of average 2014 prices. However, for newly-built ships, investments in either of these technologies from 2025 would be advisable. Here, the shipowner must pay particular attention to the specific characteristics of their ship, the type of operation, and the infrastructure for supplying fuel and handling discharges in the ports where it will usually operate. Thus, while the consequences of switching to marine gas oil in order to comply with the MARPOL regulations are certainly alarming, there are alternatives to marine gas oil, with smaller increases in the costs of maritime transport, while maintaining the benefits to society this law is intended to provide. Indeed, as we have demonstrated, the options which appear most favourable from a financial viewpoint are conversion to LNG for small ships and regular runs (cruise ships, ferries, ROROs), and installing scrubbers for large ships. Unfortunately, however, these investments are not being made, due to the high uncertainty associated with these two markets, which increases business risk, both for shipowners and for the providers of these new technologies. This means we are seeing considerable reluctance regarding these two options among the private sector. This high level of risk can be lowered only by encouraging joint efforts by the public and private sectors to overcome these barriers to entry into the market for scrubbers and LNG, which could reduce the environmental externalities of emissions without affecting the competitiveness of marine transport. Our opinion is that the same bodies which approved this law must help the shipping industry invest in these technologies, drive research on them, and promote the creation of a port infrastructure which is adapted to supply LNG and handle the discharges from scrubber systems. At present there are several European incentive programmes, such as TEN-T and Marco Polo, but we do not consider these to be sufficient. For its part, the International Maritime Organization should confirm as soon as possible whether the new lower sulphur levels in fuels will be postponed until 2025. This would eliminate the great uncertainty among shipowners, oil companies and ports regarding the timeline for beginning their future investments and for studying their viability.
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Nos dias de hoje, continua a assistir-se a elevados nveis de sinistralidade, no eventual reflexo de deficientes ou inexistentes estruturas de preveno de riscos profissionais em muitos locais de trabalho. A necessidade de segurana, higiene, preveno e formao no trabalho , simultaneamente, uma reflexo sobre ns mesmos e as nossas atitudes, intervenientes prioritrios, cada vez mais dependentes e exigentes com o trabalho e com tudo o que ele implica. Todavia, nos locais de trabalho so frequentemente criadas situaes de perigo para a sade e para a integridade fsica dos trabalhadores. A nvel mundial, fontes ligadas OMS (Organizao Mundial da Sade) e OIT (Organizao Internacional do Trabalho) referem que as condies de trabalho de cerca de 2/3 da populao ativa esto abaixo dos padres mnimos de qualidade, ou seja representam um risco real para a sade e integridade fsica dos indivduos. As estatsticas mundiais apontam para a existncia de cerca de 157 milhes de novos casos de doenas profissionais por ano e de 120 milhes de acidentes de trabalho, dos quais 220 mil acidentes so fatais.
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O objetivo deste trabalho saber se o direito indigenista, como denominarei o direito estatal que diz respeito aos povos indgenas, reconhece a legitimidade do direito indgena, como denominarei o direito produzido pelos povos indgenas, nas experincias colombiana, boliviana e brasileira. A escolha da Bolvia se justifica pelo fato de as Constituies recentes deste pas e do Equador serem consideradas um novo marco do constitucionalismo pluralista ao refundarem suas ordens buscando superar a ausncia indgena constituinte. J a Colmbia se destaca entre os pases que, sob a influncia recente do Convnio 169, incorporaram expressamente o pluralismo jurdico em suas Constituies. A jurisprudncia produzida pela Corte Constitucional do pas a respeito do direito indgena considerada exemplar e inspiradora dos desenvolvimentos mais recentes na Bolvia. O trabalho est voltado para dois aspectos do tema: a autonomia jurisdicional, ou a capacidade para julgar conflitos conforme as normas e procedimentos prprios, e os mecanismos de controle de tais decises. A metodologia do trabalho abrange reviso bibliogrfica, seleo e anlise documental de decises judiciais e textos legais. Argumento que a acomodao de autonomias polticas e ordens jurdicas de diferentes culturas depende da criao de meta-instituies e metarregras que solucionem conflitos e promovam a coordenao entre os direitos, permitindo que os grupos se relacionem de maneira equitativa, controlem a dinmica de suas identidades culturais e se sintam parte de uma mesma comunidade poltica. A prtica das instituies brasileiras, no entanto, est muito mais voltada a aplicar o direito estatal aos ndios do que a exercer controle sobre o direito indgena, o que indica que o paradigma da assimilao prevalece sobre eventuais concepes multiculturais de Estado e sociedade, ainda que o direito legislado apresente regras que reconhecem o pluralismo jurdico. Em outras palavras, as instituies estatais enxergam os indgenas como pessoas que percorrem o caminho da incapacidade jurdica capacidade plena medida em que se familiarizam com a cultura dominante, e no como pessoas que podem transitar entre diferentes ordens jurdicas. Por outro lado, a experincia recente de pases latino-americanos que se abriram ao pluralismo jurdico mostra um caminho difcil e repleto de questes em aberto. As que mais se destacam so a possibilidade de violaes de direitos humanos por autoridades indgenas e a tenso entre centralizao poltica e autonomia poltica. Em relao ao primeiro caso, o aspecto crucial saber quem deve julgar as violaes e sob quais critrios, alm de evitar decises culturalmente enviesadas. J o segundo caso depende da superao de traos autoritrios relacionados ao governo central e da predominncia das estruturas estatais j consolidadas, tanto no nvel central quanto no nvel local, sobre as instituies mantidas pelos povos indgenas. Ainda h um descompasso entre o discurso constitucional de igualdade entre as ordens jurdicas e a prtica de subordinao das ordens indgenas s instncias estatais.
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