Altered brain mechanisms of emotion processing in pre-manifest Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disease that causes motor, cognitive and psychiatric impairment, including an early decline in ability to recognize emotional states in others. The pathophysiology underlying the earliest manifestations of the disease is not fully understood; the objective of our study was to clarify this. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate changes in brain mechanisms of emotion recognition in pre-manifest carriers of the abnormal Huntington's disease gene (subjects with pre-manifest Huntington's disease): 16 subjects with pre-manifest Huntington's disease and 14 control subjects underwent 1.5 tesla magnetic resonance scanning while viewing pictures of facial expressions from the Ekman and Friesen series. Disgust, anger and happiness were chosen as emotions of interest. Disgust is the emotion in which recognition deficits have most commonly been detected in Huntington's disease; anger is the emotion in which impaired recognition was detected in the largest behavioural study of emotion recognition in pre-manifest Huntington's disease to date; and happiness is a positive emotion to contrast with disgust and anger. Ekman facial expressions were also used to quantify emotion recognition accuracy outside the scanner and structural magnetic resonance imaging with voxel-based morphometry was used to assess the relationship between emotion recognition accuracy and regional grey matter volume. Emotion processing in pre-manifest Huntington's disease was associated with reduced neural activity for all three emotions in partially separable functional networks. Furthermore, the Huntington's disease-associated modulation of disgust and happiness processing was negatively correlated with genetic markers of pre-manifest disease progression in distributed, largely extrastriatal networks. The modulated disgust network included insulae, cingulate cortices, pre- and postcentral gyri, precunei, cunei, bilateral putamena, right pallidum, right thalamus, cerebellum, middle frontal, middle occipital, right superior and left inferior temporal gyri, and left superior parietal lobule. The modulated happiness network included postcentral gyri, left caudate, right cingulate cortex, right superior and inferior parietal lobules, and right superior frontal, middle temporal, middle occipital and precentral gyri. These effects were not driven merely by striatal dysfunction. We did not find equivalent associations between brain structure and emotion recognition, and the pre-manifest Huntington's disease cohort did not have a behavioural deficit in out-of-scanner emotion recognition relative to controls. In addition, we found increased neural activity in the pre-manifest subjects in response to all three emotions in frontal regions, predominantly in the middle frontal gyri. Overall, these findings suggest that pathophysiological effects of Huntington's disease may precede the development of overt clinical symptoms and detectable cerebral atrophy.

El Memorial de Barcelona a Archer Milton Huntington, el fundador de la Hispanic Society of America, y a su esposa, la escultora, Anna Hyatt Huntington.

Barcelona en 1954 se anticipo a todos los homenajes, dedicando a Archer Milton Huntington (New York, 1870- Bathel, Connecticut, 1955) un monumento en reconocimiento a su excepcional figura como coleccionista e hispanófilo y también a su esposa, Anna Vaughn Hyatt Huntington (Cambridge, 1876 - California, 1973), excelente escultora que generosamente secundo los propósitos filo hispanos de su consorte. De esta manera Barcelona quería dejar constancia de su devoción y tributo a este reconocido coleccionista y filántropo americano que ayudo a vencer el llamado "Paradigma Prescott", historiador que había defendido las tesis sobre la leyenda negra española. A la vez que se reconocía que Archer M. Huntington ocupaba un lugar preeminente en la línea del hispanismo americano conjuntamente con los nombres de George Ticknor (1791 -1871), Washington Irving (1783-1859) y Henry Longfellow (1807-1882).

The Monument Erected in Barcelona in 1954 in Honor of Archer Milton Huntington, the Founder of The Hispanic Society of America, and His Wife, Anna Hyatt Huntington, the Eminent Sculptress.

It was in 1954 that Barcelona became the first city to pay tribute to Archer Milton Huntington (New York, 1870 - Bathel, Connecticut, 1955), by erecting a monument to the memory of this outstanding collector and Hispanist, and to hiswife, Anna Vaughn Hyatt Huntington (Cambridge, 1876 - California, 1973). An excellent sculptor, Anna Hyatt Huntington was also unstinting in her support of her husband¿s Hispanic interest. The monument was Barcelona's way of recognizing and paying tribute to this greatly respected American collector and philanthropist. Huntington played a major role in refuting "Prescott's Paradigm", named after the historian whose work on Spain did much to further the Black Legend.3 Moreover, Huntington occupied an important place in American Hispanic Studies, along with such other outstanding names as George Ticknor (Boston, 1791 - 1871), Washington Irving (New York, 1783 - 1859) and Henry Longfellow (1807 - 1882).

Regional and cellular gene expression changes in human Huntington's disease brain.

Huntington's disease (HD) pathology is well understood at a histological level but a comprehensive molecular analysis of the effect of the disease in the human brain has not previously been available. To elucidate the molecular phenotype of HD on a genome-wide scale, we compared mRNA profiles from 44 human HD brains with those from 36 unaffected controls using microarray analysis. Four brain regions were analyzed: caudate nucleus, cerebellum, prefrontal association cortex [Brodmann's area 9 (BA9)] and motor cortex [Brodmann's area 4 (BA4)]. The greatest number and magnitude of differentially expressed mRNAs were detected in the caudate nucleus, followed by motor cortex, then cerebellum. Thus, the molecular phenotype of HD generally parallels established neuropathology. Surprisingly, no mRNA changes were detected in prefrontal association cortex, thereby revealing subtleties of pathology not previously disclosed by histological methods. To establish that the observed changes were not simply the result of cell loss, we examined mRNA levels in laser-capture microdissected neurons from Grade 1 HD caudate compared to control. These analyses confirmed changes in expression seen in tissue homogenates; we thus conclude that mRNA changes are not attributable to cell loss alone. These data from bona fide HD brains comprise an important reference for hypotheses related to HD and other neurodegenerative diseases.

Irritability in pre-clinical Huntington's disease.

Irritability, together with depression and anxiety, form three salient clinical features of pre-symptomatic Huntington's disease (HD). To date, the understanding of irritability in HD suffers from a paucity of experimental data and is largely based on questionnaires or clinical anecdotes. Factor analysis suggests that irritability is related to impulsivity and aggression and is likely to engage the same neuronal circuits as these behaviours, including areas such as medial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and amygdala. 16 pre-symptomatic gene carriers (PSCs) and 15 of their companions were asked to indicate the larger of two squares consecutively shown on a screen while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Despite correct identification of the larger square, participants were often told that they or their partner had given the wrong answer. Size differences were subtle to make negative feedback credible but detectable. Although task performance, baseline irritability, and reported task-induced irritation were the same for both groups, fMRI revealed distinct neuronal processing in those who will later develop HD. In controls but not PSCs, task-induced irritation correlated positively with amygdala activation and negatively with OFC activation. Repetitive negative feedback induced greater amygdala activations in controls than PSCs. In addition, the inverse functional coupling between amygdala and OFC was significantly weaker in PSCs compared to controls. Our results argue that normal emotion processing circuits are disrupted in PSCs via attenuated modulation of emotional status by external or internal indicators. At later stages, this dysfunction may increase the risk for developing recognised, HD-associated, psychiatric symptoms such as irritability.

Magnetic resonance imaging of Huntington's disease: preparing for clinical trials.

The known genetic mutation causing Huntington's disease (HD) makes this disease an important model to study links between gene and brain function. An autosomal dominant family history and the availability of a sensitive and specific genetic test allow pre-clinical diagnosis many years before the onset of any typical clinical signs. This review summarizes recent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based findings in HD with a focus on the requirements if imaging is to be used in treatment trials. Despite its monogenetic cause, HD presents with a range of clinical manifestations, not explained by variation in the number of CAG repeats in the affected population. Neuroimaging studies have revealed a complex pattern of structural and functional changes affecting widespread cortical and subcortical regions far beyond the confines of the striatal degeneration that characterizes this disorder. Besides striatal dysfunction, functional imaging studies have reported a variable pattern of increased and decreased activation in cortical regions in both pre-clinical and clinically manifest HD-gene mutation carriers. Beyond regional brain activation changes, evidence from functional and diffusion-weighted MRI further suggests disrupted connectivity between corticocortical and corticostriatal areas. However, substantial inconsistencies with respect to structural and functional changes have been reported in a number of studies. Possible explanations include methodological factors and differences in study samples. There may also be biological explanations but these are poorly characterized and understood at present. Additional insights into this phenotypic variability derived from study of mouse models are presented to explore this phenomenon.

Functional compensation of motor function in pre-symptomatic Huntington's disease.

Involuntary choreiform movements are a clinical hallmark of Huntington's disease. Studies in clinically affected patients suggest a shift of motor activations to parietal cortices in response to progressive neurodegeneration. Here, we studied pre-symptomatic gene carriers to examine the compensatory mechanisms that underlie the phenomenon of retained motor function in the presence of degenerative change. Fifteen pre-symptomatic gene carriers and 12 matched controls performed button presses paced by a metronome at either 0.5 or 2 Hz with four fingers of the right hand whilst being scanned with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Subjects pressed buttons either in the order of a previously learnt 10-item finger sequence, from left to right, or kept still. Error rates ranged from 2% to 7% in the pre-symptomatic gene carriers and from 0.5% to 4% in controls, depending on the condition. No significant difference in task performance was found between groups for any of the conditions. Activations in the supplementary motor area (SMA) and superior parietal lobe differed with gene status. Compared with healthy controls, gene carriers showed greater activations of left caudal SMA with all movement conditions. Activations correlated with increasing speed of movement were greater the closer the gene carriers were to estimated clinical diagnosis, defined by the onset of unequivocal motor signs. Activations associated with increased movement complexity (i.e. with the pre-learnt 10-item sequence) decreased in the rostral SMA with nearing diagnostic onset. The left superior parietal lobe showed reduced activation with increased movement complexity in gene carriers compared with controls, and in the right superior parietal lobe showed greater activations with all but the most demanding movements. We identified a complex pattern of motor compensation in pre-symptomatic gene carriers. The results show that preclinical compensation goes beyond a simple shift of activity from premotor to parietal regions involving multiple compensatory mechanisms in executive and cognitive motor areas. Critically, the pattern of motor compensation is flexible depending on the actual task demands on motor control.

A pathogenic mechanism in Huntington"s disease involves small CAG-repeated RNAs with neurotoxic activity

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominantly inherited disorder caused by the expansion of CAG repeats in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. The abnormally extended polyglutamine in the HTT protein encoded by the CAG repeats has toxic effects. Here, we provide evidence to support that the mutant HTT CAG repeats interfere with cell viability at the RNA level. In human neuronal cells, expanded HTT exon-1 mRNA with CAG repeat lengths above the threshold for complete penetrance (40 or greater) induced cell death and increased levels of small CAG-repeated RNAs (sCAGs), of ≈21 nucleotides in a Dicer-dependent manner. The severity of the toxic effect of HTT mRNA and sCAG generation correlated with CAG expansion length. Small RNAs obtained from cells expressing mutant HTT and from HD human brains significantly decreased neuronal viability, in an Ago2-dependent mechanism. In both cases, the use of anti-miRs specific for sCAGs efficiently blocked the toxic effect, supporting a key role of sCAGs in HTT-mediated toxicity. Luciferase-reporter assays showed that expanded HTT silences the expression of CTG-containing genes that are down-regulated in HD. These results suggest a possible link between HD and sCAG expression with an aberrant activation of the siRNA/miRNA gene silencing machinery, which may trigger a detrimental response. The identification of the specific cellular processes affected by sCAGs may provide insights into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying HD, offering opportunities to develop new therapeutic approaches

Les savants et les livres : autour d'Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) et Samuel Auguste Tissot (1728-1797)

Cette thèse décrit de quelle manière les hommes travaillant dans les sciences de la vie durant la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle s'insèrent et jonglent au quotidien dans l'univers de la librairie d'Ancien Régime. Plus précisément dans celui que l'historien du livre Robert Damton a défini le circuit de la communication. Un circuit complexe qui va de l'auteur à l'éditeur, en passant par l'imprimeur, le transporteur, le libraire, le lecteur ou encore par le relieur et le copiste.Marchander le prix d'une page manuscrite avec un éditeur, s'assurer de rester au courant des nouveautés de la librairie, prendre des notes, trouver un bon copiste, juger de la qualité d'un ouvrage ou d'une traduction, se protéger des contrefaçons, se créer un fonds de bibliothèque: voici le quotidien du savant au travail abordé dans cette thèse dont le but est de comprendre de quelle manière fonctionnent les mécanismes d'acquisition, de mise en forme et de mise en circulation du savoir - bref, les coulisses de la communication scientifique. Cela à une période où les hommes de science sont de plus en plus confrontés à un "déluge" de nouvelles publications en toutes langues. La seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle, correspond en fait à celui qu'a été défini par les historiens du livre un "apogée" de l'imprimé scientifique. Caractérisée par un changement dans le milieu de la production imprimée, cette seconde partie du siècle marque une césure, une situation nouvelle à laquelle le savant doit s'adapter afin de ne pas être dépassé par les événements et afin de pouvoir tirer le plus large bénéfice de toutes les formes d'expression et d'intervention qui sont mises à sa disposition. Afin d'analyser les stratégies mises en place par les savants pour gérer la masse de l'information et afin de reconstruire les pratiques ordinaires du travail savant, pratiques qui accompagnent le savoir dans son devenir et sont susceptible de l'influencer, cette thèse s'appuie sur la riche correspondance que le médecin lausannois Samuel Auguste Tissot et son collègue bernois Albrecht von Haller, deux savants et écrivains de renom parmi les plus célèbres des Lumières helvétiques, échangent pendant plus de vingt ans. Ce couple pourrait être défini comme antinomique. Le représentant d'une culture humaniste, formé à l'école iatromécanique de Leyde et insatiable lecteur qu'est Haller et un partisan de la vulgarisation, formé au vitalisme à Montpellier tel que Tissot, d'une génération plus jeune, se sont démontrés avoir une conception parfois différente de ce qu'est un livre de science, en particulier un livre de médecine, de la forme qu'il doit avoir, du prix auquel il doit être vendu ou encore de la langue dans laquelle il doit être écrit. L'un, Haller, médecin de cabinet et professeur à Gôttingen pendant dix-sept ans, l'autre, Tissot, praticien et médecin des pauvres ayant enseigné seulement quatre semestres à Pavie, pratiquent et conçoivent en partie différemment la communication du savoir scientifique et le public de celle-ci. L'étude prend également en compte les lettres échangées avec un réseau d'amis communs, surtout le médecin argovien Johann Georg Zimmermann et le naturaliste genevois Charles Bonnet. Les correspondances des professionnels du livre représentent un autre pan incontournable du corpus documentaire de la thèse. C'est grâce à ces hommes que le texte du savant sort du cabinet et prend sa forme matérielle, voire il acquiert du sens. Des documents tels des essais ou des notes de lecture et les pièces liminaires des livres (préfaces, dédicaces, avis aux lecteurs, notes) se sont aussi révélées être des documents précieux: ils témoignent des pratiques de travail des savants et ils renseignent aussi bien sur les intentions poursuivies par l'auteur que sur les pratiques d'édition, contrefaçon et traduction.Basée sur une démarche micro-historique qui croise l'histoire sociale des sciences et l'histoire sociale du livre à la française, cette thèse s'articule autour de 5 chapitres et un intermède. La disposition des parties suit en quelques sortes les étapes du travail savant: lecture, écriture, mise sous presse, mise en circulation, réception.

Les mots du corps : l'expérience de la maladie dans les consultations épistolaires adressées au Dr Samuel Auguste Tissot (1728-1797)

Résumé de la thèse: Cette thèse vise à analyser l'expérience de la maladie telle qu'elle se donne à lire dans les consultations épistolaires de la seconde moitié du 18e siècle, en particulier dans la correspondance adressée au médecin suisse Samuel Auguste Tissot (1758-1797), qui contient plus d'un millier de documents rendant compte de la situation d'un malade et soumis au praticien en vue de solliciter un diagnostic et des traitements. Il s'agit plus précisément d'étudier les modes de représentation et de réaction face à la maladie du point de vue des patient-e-s et de la communauté des profanes, en inscrivant les récits envoyés au praticien dans le contexte à la fois des conventions d'écriture relatives à la médecine par lettres et des schémas d'appréhension du corps ou de la santé au siècle des Lumières, ainsi que dans le cadre de l'offre thérapeutique disponible à cette époque. La thèse cherche principalement à défendre l'idée de mises en intrigue des maux qui, tout en étant informées par des catégories lexico-sémantiques culturelles et historiques, ne ménagent pas moins une certaine marge interprétative et narrative aux auteur-e-s des consultations épistolaires, révélant de leur part des appropriations complexes et sélectives par rapport à la culture médicale.