A three-dimensional dynamical model of Amundsenisen icefield, Svalbard.

Amundsenisen is an ice field, 80 km2 in area, located in Southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Radio-echo sounding measurements at 20 MHz show high intensity returns from a nearly flat basal reflector at four zones, all of them with ice thickness larger than 500m. These reflections suggest possible subglacial lakes. To determine whether basal liquid water is compatible with current pressure and temperature conditions, we aim at applying a thermo mechanical model with a free boundary at the bed defined as solution of a Stefan problem for the interface ice-subglaciallake. The complexity of the problem suggests the use of a bi-dimensional model, but this requires that well-defined flowlines across the zones with suspected subglacial lakes are available. We define these flow lines from the solution of a three-dimensional dynamical model, and this is the main goal of the present contribution. We apply a three-dimensional full-Stokes model of glacier dynamics to Amundsenisen icefield. We are mostly interested in the plateau zone of the icefield, so we introduce artificial vertical boundaries at the heads of the main outlet glaciers draining Amundsenisen. At these boundaries we set velocity boundary conditions. Velocities near the centres of the heads of the outlets are known from experimental measurements. The velocities at depth are calculated according to a SIA velocity-depth profile, and those at the rest of the transverse section are computed following Nye’s (1952) model. We select as southeastern boundary of the model domain an ice divide, where we set boundary conditions of zero horizontal velocities and zero vertical shear stresses. The upper boundary is a traction-free boundary. For the basal boundary conditions, on the zones of suspected subglacial lakes we set free-slip boundary conditions, while for the rest of the basal boundary we use a friction law linking the sliding velocity to the basal shear stress,in such a way that, contrary to the shallow ice approximation, the basal shear stress is not equal to the basal driving stress but rather part of the solution.

Latin American Agricultural Trade: The Role of the WTO in Sustainable Virtual Water Flows, European Association of Agricultural Economists

International agricultural trade has been growing significantly during the last decade. Many countries rely on imports to ensure adequate food supplies to the people. A few are becoming food baskets of the world. This process raises issues about the food security in depending countries and potentially unsustainable land and water use in exporting countries. In this paper, we analyse the impacts of amplified farm trade on natural resources, especially water. Farm exports and imports of five Latin America countries (Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Peru and Chile) are examined carefully. A preliminary analysis indicates that virtual water imports can save valuable water resources in water-short countries, such as Mexico and Chile. Major exporting countries, including Brazil and Argentina, have become big exporters due to abundant natural resource endowments. The opportunity costs of agricultural production in those countries are identified as being low, because of the predominant green water use. It is concluded that virtual water trade can be a powerful tool to alleviate water stress in semi-arid countries. However, for exporting nations a sustainable water use can only be guaranteed if environmental production costs are fully reflected in the commodity prices. There is no basis for erecting environmental trade tariffs on exporters though. Setting up legal foundations for them in full compliance with WTOs processes would be a daunting task.

Pond head level control in a run-of-river hydro power plant using fuzzy controller

The run-of-river hydro power plant usually have low or nil water storage capacity, and therefore an adequate control strategy is required to keep the water level constant in pond. This paper presents a novel technique based on TSK fuzzy controller to maintain the pond head constant. The performance is investigated over a wide range of hill curve of hydro turbine. The results are compared with PI controller as discussed in [1].

Ordenación agrohidrológica de la cuenca del Etang Pouillet Departamento del Sudeste Haití.

La cuenca del “Etang Pouillet” (Departamento del Sudeste, Haití), presenta unas tasas de erosión muy elevadas debido a la deforestación y a la práctica de la agricultura sin técnicas de conservación de suelos, lo que constituye un grave problema desde el punto de vista medioambiental y social, ya que la pérdida de productividad del suelo pone en peligro la seguridad alimentaria de los habitantes de la cuenca, mayoritariamente agricultores. Para la evaluación de las tasas de pérdidas de suelo se ha utilizado la metodología propuesta por la Ecuación Universal de Pérdidas de Suelo, U.S.L.E. (Universal Soil Loss Equation). Dicha evaluación estima pérdidas de suelo calificadas de altas (50 – 200 t ha/año) o muy altas (> 200 t ha/año) en casi el 90% de la superficie de la cuenca. Debido a las altas tasas de pérdidas de suelo, se propone una intervención integral de la cuenca. En dicha intervención se combinarán actuaciones técnicas de conservación de suelos para frenar la degradación del mismo y se incidirá en el trabajo con las comunidades para mitigar el impacto que realizan sobre el medio y asegurar una mayor durabilidad de las actuaciones correctoras.

Estudio de la implantación de una parcela demostrativa de cultivo agroforestal en el Parque Nacional de La Visite en el Departamento del sudeste Haití.

En el estudio se elabora un diagnóstico de las prácticas agrícolas de los habitantes del Parque Nacional de La Visite y de sus necesidades para hacer un diseño demostrativo de parcela agroforestal. Con la introducción de árboles en las parcelas se puede ayudar a mitigar la erosión y la baja fertilidad de sus tierras, a parte de poder controlar la deforestación, debido a la introducción de especies arbóreas de crecimiento rápido, y obtención de beneficios por la producción de los árboles frutales. Para poder diseñar la parcela de ensayo, se realizaron entrevistas a las familias de la zona, para conocer su forma de vida, evaluar sus prácticas agrícolas e involucrarles en el proyecto. . En la parcela de estudio se realizaron análisis de suelos y caracterización del clima para poder hacer la selección de las especies arbóreas teniendo en cuenta esos criterios, y “levantamiento topográfico” con GPS para conocer la topografía del terreno. Posteriormente se elabora un diseño de sistema agroforestal, teniendo en cuenta la combinación con los cultivos tradicionales. Este estudio es una parcela demostrativa, que constituye un punto de partida a futuras actuaciones.

Dimensión política y de gestión de la Huella Hídrica

El ciclo hidrológico proporciona anualmente 110,000 Km3 en forma de precipitaciones de lluvia y nieve (L'Vovich et al., 1990). Globalmente, el 37% de esas precipitaciones se destina a alimentar ríos, acuíferos, lagos y otros sistemas acuáticos, mientras que el 63% restante, se almacena en la reserva de agua del suelo y contribuye a mantener la productividad primaria de los sistemas agrícolas y forestales. Según las distintas estimaciones, el volumen de agua que actualmente se extrae de los sistemas acuáticos para uso humano a escala global varía entre 3100 y 4400 Km3 (Postel et al., 1996; Rosegrant et al., 2002; Falkenmark y Rockström, 2004; Oki y Kanae 2006; Gleick et al., 2008). Teniendo en cuenta que la cantidad de agua que puede ser captada de forma sostenible de estos sistemas es de aproximadamente 10.200 Km3 (Postel et al., 1996), la apropiación actual de este recurso representa en torno al 31 y 44%.

Spatial and temporal precipitation patterns of the Ebro River Basin, Spain

The Ebro River Basin, with around 85 000 km2 and located in NE Spain, is characterized by the high spatial heterogeneity of its geology, topography, climatology and land use. Rainfall is one of the most important climatic variables studied owing to its non-homogenous behaviour in event and intensity, which creates drought, water runoff and soil erosion with negative environmental and social consequences. In this work we characterized the rainfall variability pattern in the Ebro River Basin using universal multifractal (UM) analysis, which estimates the concentration of the data around the precipitation average (C1, codimension average), the degree of multiscaling behaviour in time (? index) and the maximum probable singularity in the rainfall distribution ( s). A spatial and temporal analysis of the UM parameters is applied to study the possible changes. With this porpoise, 60 daily rainfall series were selected from 132 synthetic series generated by Luna and Balairón (AEMet). These daily rainfall series present a length of 60 years, from 1950 to 2009. Each one of them was subdivided (1950?1970 and 1980?2009) to analyse the difference between the two periods. The range of variation of precipitation amounts and the frequency of dry events between both periods are discussed, as well as the evolution of the UM parameters through the years.

Fractal Behaviour and Irregularity of Wetting Fronts in Heterogeneous Porous Media

The wetting front is the zone where water invades and advances into an initially dry porous material and it plays a crucial role in solute transport through the unsaturated zone. Water is an essential part of the physiological process of all plants. Through water, necessary minerals are moved from the roots to the parts of the plants that require them. Water moves chemicals from one part of the plant to another. It is also required for photosynthesis, for metabolism and for transpiration. The leaching of chemicals by wetting fronts is influenced by two major factors, namely: the irregularity of the fronts and heterogeneity in the distribution of chemicals, both of which have been described by using fractal techniques. Soil structure can significantly modify infiltration rates and flow pathways in soils. Relations between features of soil structure and features of infiltration could be elucidated from the velocities and the structure of wetting fronts. When rainwater falls onto soil, it doesn?t just pool on surfaces. Water ?or another fluid- acts differently on porous surfaces. If the surface is permeable (porous) it seeps down through layers of soil, filling that layer to capacity. Once that layer is filled, it moves down into the next layer. In sandy soil, water moves quickly, while it moves much slower through clay soil. The movement of water through soil layers is called the the wetting front. Our research concerns the motion of a liquid into an initially dry porous medium. Our work presents a theoretical framework for studying the physical interplay between a stationary wetting front of fractal dimension D with different porous materials. The aim was to model the mass geometry interplay by using the fractal dimension D of a stationary wetting front. The plane corresponding to the image is divided in several squares (the minimum correspond to the pixel size) of size length ". We acknowledge the help of Prof. M. García Velarde and the facilities offered by the Pluri-Disciplinary Institute of the Complutense University of Madrid. We also acknowledge the help of European Community under project Multi-scale complex fluid flows and interfacial phenomena (PITN-GA-2008-214919). Thanks are also due to ERCOFTAC (PELNoT, SIG 14)

Soil fragmentation study applying different tillage systems

Runoff generation depends on rainfall, infiltration, interception, and surface depressional storage. Surface depressional storage depends on surface microtopography, usually quantified trough soil surface roughness (SSR). SSR is subject to spatial and temporal changes that create a high variability. In an agricultural environment, tillage operations produce abrupt changes in roughness. Subsequent rainfall gradually decreases roughness. Beside it, local variation in soil properties and hydrology cause its SSR to vary spatially at different scales. The methods commonly used to measure it involve collecting point elevations in regular grids using laser profilers or scanners, digital close range stereo-photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning or LIDAR systems. In this case, a laser-scanning instrument was used to obtain representative digital elevation models (DEMs) at a grid resolution of 7.2x7.2mm that cover an area of 0.9x0.9m. The DEMs were obtained from two study sites with different soils. The first study site was an experimental field on which five conventional tillage methods were applied. The second study site was a large olive orchard with trees planted at 7.5x5.0m and bare soils between rows. Here, three tillage treatments were applied. In this work we have evaluated the spatial variability of SSR at several scales studying differences in height calculated from points separated by incremental distances h were raised to power values q (from 0 to 4 in steps of 0.1). The q = 2 data were studied as a semivariogram model. The logarithm of average differences plotted vs. log h were characterized by their slope, ?(q). Structure functions [?(q) vs. q] were fitted showing that data had nonlinear structure functions typical of multiscale phenomena. Comparisson of the two types of soil in their respective structure functions are shown.

Integrated methodology for assessing the effects of geomorphological river restoration on fish habitat and riparian vegetation

Changes in the geomorphology of rivers have serious repercussions, causing losses in the dynamics and naturalness of their forms, going in many cases, from a type of meandering channel, with constant erosion and sedimentation processes, to a channelized narrow river with rigid and stable margins, where the only possibility of movement occurs in the vertical, causing the only changes in channel geometry occur in the river bed. On the other hand, these changes seriously affect the naturalness of the banks, preventing the development of riparian vegetation and reducing the cross connectivity of the riparian corridor. Common canalizations and disconnections of meanders increase the slope, and therefore speed, resulting in processes of regressive erosion, effect increased as a result of the narrowing of the channel and the concentration of flows. This process of incision may turn the flood plain to be "hung", being completely disconnected from the water table, with important consequences for vegetation. As an example of the effects of these changes, it has been chosen the case of the Arga River The Arga river has been channelized and rectified, as it passes along the meander RamalHondo and Soto Gil (Funes, Navarra). The effects on fish habitat and riparian vegetation by remeandering the Arga River are presented. and Ttwo very contrasting situationsrestoration hypothesis, in terms of geomorphology concerns, have been established to assess the effects these changes have on the habitat of one of the major fish species in the area (Luciobabus graellsii) and on the riparian vegetation. To accomplish this goal, it has been necessary to used the a digital elevation model provided by LIDAR flight, bathymetric data, flow data, as inputs, and a hydraulic simulation model 2D (Infoworks RS). The results obtained not only helped to evaluate the effects of the past alterations of geomorphologic characteristics, but also to predict fish and vegetation habitat responses to this type of changes.

Replacing bare fallow with cover crops in an irrigated cropping system: soil salinity and salt leaching

In irrigated areas where cover crop establishment can be assured, consequent soil or nutrient conservation could increase sustainability of cropping systems. Replacing bare fallow with cover crops may increase sustainability by enhancing soil aggregate stability, water retention capacity or controlling nitrate leaching. Nevertheless, adoption of cover crops increase evapotranspiration and reduce water percolation beyond the root systems; therefore, it could lead to salt accumulation in the upper soil layers. This study was conducted during four years to determine the effect of replacing bare fallow by a cover crop on soil salt accumulation and salt leaching in an irrigated maize production system.

Evaluación de la escorrentía media anual obtenida por fórmulas climáticas y modelos regionales de clima

En regiones en las que no se dispone de un modelo hidrológico correctamente calibrado para estimar la escorrentía, se puede recurrir a la utilización de la escorrentía directa simulada por los modelos climáticos o a la escorrentía calculada a partir de fórmulas climatológicas que emplean variables climáticas básicas como la precipitación, temperatura y radiación solar, simuladas por los modelos regionales de clima (MRC). El presente trabajo compara el comportamiento de la escorrentía directa obtenida por 10 simulaciones de los MRC del proyecto europeo PRUDENCE y la escorrentía media anual calculada a partir de la aplicación de cinco fórmulas climatológicas (Schreiber, Ol’dekop, Budyko, Turc-Pike, Zhang et al.) basadas en el índice de aridez, definido por la relación entre la evapotranspiración potencial y la precipitación. Series temporales mensuales de escorrentía, precipitación, temperatura y radiación solar son generadas a partir de las simulaciones de los MRC en 338 cuencas de España que cubren la totalidad del territorio peninsular, bajo condiciones de clima actual (periodo 1961-1990). La evapotranspiración potencial se obtiene usando el método presentado por Hargreaves. Estas formas funcionales estiman la relación entre la evapotranspiración actual y la precipitación y a través de un balance hídrico se calculan los valores de escorrentía anual. El comportamiento general de las variables climáticas simuladas por los MRC se caracteriza por presentar menor sesgo para precipitación y temperatura que para escorrentía. Empleando estadísticos de comparación se analiza la capacidad que tiene la escorrentía directa y la escorrentía anual calculada a partir de las fórmulas climáticas para reproducir los valores observados de escorrentía natural estimada por el modelo hidrológico distribuido SIMPA en las cuencas españolas. En total se generaron 10 series mensuales de escorrentía directa y 50 series de escorrentía anual basadas en el índice de aridez (cada fórmula climática aplicada a las 10 simulaciones de los MRC). Los resultados muestran que la fórmula de Schreiber produce la mejor aproximación a los valores observados y por tanto minimiza el sesgo predominante en la variable escorrentía. Adicionalmente, estos resultados se validan con las capas de escorrentía media anual de alta resolución proporcionada por la UNH/GRDC (University of New Hampshire/Global Runoff Data Centre) que preservan la exactitud de las medidas de las aportaciones observadas en las principales estaciones hidrológicas de todo el mundo, y que en la actualidad es el “mejor estimador” de la escorrentía terrestre sobre grandes extensiones. En este caso, los resultados muestran también que la fórmula de Schreiber estima mejor los valores de escorrentía anual que la escorrentía directa simulada por MRC.

Comparación de dos métodos para la estimación de los daños por sequía en pastos de dehesa / Comparative methods for assessment of dehesa pasture drought insurance in Spain

El Sistema de Seguros Agrarios con el Seguro de cobertura de los daños por sequía en los pastos aprovechados por el ganado en régimen extensivo (línea de seguro 133) aplica la teledetección mediante un índice de vegetación (NDVI), con el fin de solucionar los problemas de peritación que surgen cuando se tiene que determinar la cantidad y calidad del pasto afectado por la sequía. Por ello el seguro de cobertura de los daños por sequía en pastos es el principal instrumento para hacer frente al gasto que supone la necesidad de suplemento de alimentación del ganado reproductor debido a la sequía. En las comarcas de Vitigudino, Trujillo y Valle de los Pedroches (España) se comparó la evolución del seguro de sequía en pastos desde 2006 a 2010 con un modelo matemático de crecimiento del pasto en función de las variables ecofisiológicas y ambientales. Sumadas las decenas de sequía extrema y sequía leve, el modelo matemático contabilizó un número mayor de decenas que las proporcionadas por Agroseguro. La recomendación es comparar las curvas de crecimiento del pasto con las curvas de evolución del NDVI, para ajustar ambos modelos

The Extended Water Footprint and illegal groundwater use in the Upper Guadiana Basin (Spain)

Tablas de Daimiel National Park is located in the Upper Guadiana Basin and represents one of the largest and most important wetlands in Europe. The long term ecological integrity of this wetland is inherently associated with the maintenance of a shallow groundwater table, namely the Western Mancha aquifer (WMA) or Aquifer 23. The intensive use of groundwater, mainly for irrigation, has led over the last decades to deep socio‐economic changes. Such intensive use has also lowered the water table of Aquifer 23, drastically reducing the flooded area of the wetland and threatening its ecological integrity. A number of plans and measures have been developed and implemented since the declaration of overexploitation of Aquifer 23 in the year 1987. The most recent one is the Special Plan for the Upper Guadiana (SPUG), approved in 2008. This Plan is the main measure to comply with achieving the objective of good quantitative and qualitative status required under the Water Framework Directive (2000). This paper offers a new type of integrated analysis which allows assessing under a common lens the physical, economic and social dimensions of groundwater use in the area. The first objective is to calculate the groundwater footprint of agricultural production in the Upper Guadiana basin and its evolution during 2000‐2008. For this purpose, we have applied the Extended Water Footprint (EWF) methodology ‐a novel approach based on the classical Water Footprint (WF) approach‐ that includes an assessment of the water productivity from an economic and social perspective. Compared to the classical WF, the EWF allows for a more complete overview of the sector, providing new insights for policy decisions (e.g. to define options and possibilities on water re‐allocation in order to achieve both better ecosystem conservation and social equity). The second objective is to use the EWF to compare the existing authorized and non‐authorized or illegal use of water. This allows us to discuss current initiatives by public authorities in relation to the existing frame of water rights

Balancing groundwater conservation and rural livelihoods under water and climate uncertainties: An integrated hydro-economic modeling framework

In arid countries worldwide, social conflicts between irrigation-based human development and the conservation of aquatic ecosystems are widespread and attract many public debates. This research focuses on the analysis of water and agricultural policies aimed at conserving groundwater resources and maintaining rurallivelihoods in a basin in Spain's central arid region. Intensive groundwater mining for irrigation has caused overexploitation of the basin's large aquifer, the degradation of reputed wetlands and has given rise to notable social conflicts over the years. With the aim of tackling the multifaceted socio-ecological interactions of complex water systems, the methodology used in this study consists in a novel integration into a common platform of an economic optimization model and a hydrology model WEAP (Water Evaluation And Planning system). This robust tool is used to analyze the spatial and temporal effects of different water and agricultural policies under different climate scenarios. It permits the prediction of different climate and policy outcomes across farm types (water stress impacts and adaptation), at basin's level (aquifer recovery), and along the policies’ implementation horizon (short and long run). Results show that the region's current quota-based water policies may contribute to reduce water consumption in the farms but will not be able to recover the aquifer and will inflict income losses to the rural communities. This situation would worsen in case of drought. Economies of scale and technology are evidenced as larger farms with cropping diversification and those equipped with modern irrigation will better adapt to water stress conditions. However, the long-term sustainability of the aquifer and the maintenance of rurallivelihoods will be attained only if additional policy measures are put in place such as the control of illegal abstractions and the establishing of a water bank. Within the policy domain, the research contributes to the new sustainable development strategy of the EU by concluding that, in water-scarce regions, effective integration of water and agricultural policies is essential for achieving the water protection objectives of the EU policies. Therefore, the design and enforcement of well-balanced region-specific polices is a major task faced by policy makers for achieving successful water management that will ensure nature protection and human development at tolerable social costs. From a methodological perspective, this research initiative contributes to better address hydrological questions as well as economic and social issues in complex water and human systems. Its integrated vision provides a valuable illustration to inform water policy and management decisions within contexts of water-related conflicts worldwide.