Tau hyperphosphorylation and increased BACE1 and RAGE levels in the cortex of PPARβ/δ-null mice.

The role of peroxisome proliferator activator receptor (PPAR)β/δ in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease has only recently been explored through the use of PPARβ/δ agonists. Here we evaluated the effects of PPARβ/δ deficiency on the amyloidogenic pathway and tau hyperphosphorylation. PPARβ/δ-null mice showed cognitive impairment in the object recognition task, accompanied by enhanced DNA-binding activity of NF-κB in the cortex and increased expression of IL-6. In addition, two NF-κB-target genes involved in β-amyloid (Aβ) synthesis and deposition, the β site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (Bace1) and the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (Rage), respectively, increased in PPARβ/δ-null mice compared to wild type animals. The protein levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) increased in the cortex of PPARβ/δ-null mice, which would suggest the presence of astrogliosis. Finally, tau hyperphosphorylation at Ser199 and enhanced levels of PHF-tau were associated with increased levels of the tau kinases CDK5 and phospho-ERK1/2 in the cortex of PPARβ/δ(-/-) mice. Collectively, our findings indicate that PPARβ/δ deficiency results in cognitive impairment associated with enhanced inflammation, astrogliosis and tau hyperphosphorylation in the cortex.

Genetic redox dysregulation induces behavioural deficits in the adult mouse: an animal model for schizophrenia

Background: Glutathione (GSH), a major cellular redox regulator and antioxidant, is decreased in cerebrospinal fluid and prefrontal cortex of schizophrenia patients. The gene of the key GSH-synthesizing enzyme, glutamate-cysteine ligase, modifier (GCLM) subunit, is associated with schizophrenia, suggesting that the deficit in the GSH system is of genetic origin. Using the GCLM knock-out (KO) mouse as model system with 60% decreased brain GSH levels and, thus, strong vulnerability to oxidative stress, we have shown that GSH dysregulation results in abnormal mouse brain morphology (e.g., reduced parvalbumin, PV, immuno-reactivity in frontal areas) and function. Additional oxidative stress, induced by GBR12909 (a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor), enhances morphological changes even further. Aim: In the present study we use the GCLM KO mouse model system, asking now, whether GSH dysregulation also compromises mouse behaviour and cognition. Methods: Male and female wildtype (WT) and GCLM-KO mice are treated with GBR12909 or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) from postnatal day (P) 5 to 10, and are behaviourally tested at P 60 and older. Results: In comparison to WT, KO animals of both sexes are hyperactive in the open field, display more frequent open arm entries on the elevated plus maze, longer float latencies in the Porsolt swim test, and more frequent contacts of novel and familiar objects. Contrary to other reports of animal models with reduced PV immuno-reactivity, GCLM-KO mice display normal rule learning capacity and perform normally on a spatial recognition task. GCLM-KO mice do, however, show a strong deficit in object-recognition after a 15 minutes retention delay. GBR12909 treatment exerts no additional effect. Conclusions: The results suggest that animals with impaired regulation of brain oxidative stress are impulsive and have reduced behavioural control in novel, unpredictable contexts. Moreover, GSH dysregulation seems to induce a selective attentional or stimulus-encoding deficit: despite intensive object exploration, GCLM-KO mice cannot discriminate between novel and familiar objects. In conclusion, the present data indicate that GSH dysregulation may contribute to the manifestation of behavioural and cognitive anomalies that are associated with schizophrenia.

Searching patterns in painting images with computer vision techniques

This paper presents a pattern recognition method focused on paintings images. The purpose is construct a system able to recognize authors or art styles based on common elements of his work (here called patterns). The method is based on comparing images that contain the same or similar patterns. It uses different computer vision techniques, like SIFT and SURF, to describe the patterns in descriptors, K-Means to classify and simplify these descriptors, and RANSAC to determine and detect good results. The method are good to find patterns of known images but not so good if they are not.

Single-trial topographic analysis of human EEG: A new image of event-related potentials

We present a novel approach for analyzing single-trial electroencephalography (EEG) data, using topographic information. The method allows for visualizing event-related potentials using all the electrodes of recordings overcoming the problem of previous approaches that required electrode selection and waveforms filtering. We apply this method to EEG data from an auditory object recognition experiment that we have previously analyzed at an ERP level. Temporally structured periods were statistically identified wherein a given topography predominated without any prior information about the temporal behavior. In addition to providing novel methods for EEG analysis, the data indicate that ERPs are reliably observable at a single-trial level when examined topographically.

Conduites spéculaires dans les démences: les multiples signes du miroir [Mirror behaviors in dementia: the many mirror signs].

Mirror behaviors in advanced dementia are: the mirror sign of Abely and Delmas, where the patient stares at his face (environment-driven behavior of Lhermitte); non recognition of the self in the mirror (autoprosopagnosia and/or delirious auto-Capgras); mirror agnosia of Ramachandran and Binkofski where the patient do not understand the concept of mirror and its use; the psychovisual reflex, or reflex pursuit of the eyes when passively moving a minrror in front of a patient (intact vision); mirror writing (procedural learning). We describe four demented patients with mirror behaviors assessing brain mechanisms of self recognition, social brain and mental and visuo-spatial manipulation of images and objects.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor knockout mice are impaired in learning, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is a key incretin hormone, released from intestine after a meal, producing a glucose-dependent insulin secretion. The GIP receptor (GIPR) is expressed on pyramidal neurons in the cortex and hippocampus, and GIP is synthesized in a subset of neurons in the brain. However, the role of the GIPR in neuronal signaling is not clear. In this study, we used a mouse strain with GIPR gene deletion (GIPR KO) to elucidate the role of the GIPR in neuronal communication and brain function. Compared with C57BL/6 control mice, GIPR KO mice displayed higher locomotor activity in an open-field task. Impairment of recognition and spatial learning and memory of GIPR KO mice were found in the object recognition task and a spatial water maze task, respectively. In an object location task, no impairment was found. GIPR KO mice also showed impaired synaptic plasticity in paired-pulse facilitation and a block of long-term potentiation in area CA1 of the hippocampus. Moreover, a large decrease in the number of neuronal progenitor cells was found in the dentate gyrus of transgenic mice, although the numbers of young neurons was not changed. Together the results suggest that GIP receptors play an important role in cognition, neurotransmission, and cell proliferation.

Dendritic Spine Abnormalities in Hippocampal CA1 Pyramidal Neurons Underlying Memory Deficits in the SAMP8 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

SAMP8 is a strain of mice with accelerated senescence. These mice have recently been the focus of attention as they show several alterations that have also been described in Alzheimer"s disease (AD) patients. The number of dendritic spines, spine plasticity, and morphology are basic to memory formation. In AD, the density of dendritic spines is severely decreased. We studied memory alterations using the object recognition test. We measured levels of synaptophysin as a marker of neurotransmission and used Golgi staining to quantify and characterize the number and morphology of dendritic spines in SAMP8 mice and in SAMR1 as control animals. While there were no memory differences at 3 months of age, the memory of both 6- and 9-month-old SAMP8 mice was impaired in comparison with age-matched SAMR1 mice or young SAMP8 mice. In addition, synaptophysin levels were not altered in young SAMP8 animals, but SAMP8 aged 6 and 9 months had less synaptophysin than SAMR1 controls and also less than 3-month-old SAMP8 mice. Moreover, while spine density remained stable with age in SAMR1 mice, the number of spines started to decrease in SAMP8 animals at 6 months, only to get worse at 9 months. Our results show that from 6 months onwards SAMP8 mice show impaired memory. This age coincides with that at which the levels of synaptophysin and spine density decrease. Thus, we conclude that together with other studies that describe several alterations at similar ages, SAMP8 mice are a very suitable model for studying AD.

Polarimetric 3D integral imaging in photon-starved conditions

We develop a method for obtaining 3D polarimetric integral images from elemental images recorded in low light illumination conditions. Since photon-counting images are very sparse, calculation of the Stokes parameters and the degree of polarization should be handled carefully. In our approach, polarimetric 3D integral images are generated using the Maximum Likelihood Estimation and subsequently reconstructed by means of a Total Variation Denoising filter. In this way, polarimetric results are comparable to those obtained in conventional illumination conditions. We also show that polarimetric information retrieved from photon starved images can be used in 3D object recognition problems. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on 3D polarimetric photon counting integral imaging.

Evaluation of two experimental models of hepatic encephalopathy in rats

The serious neuropsychological repercussions of hepatic encephalopathy have led to the creation of several experimental models in order to better understand the pathogenesis of the disease. In the present investigation, two possible causes of hepatic encephalopathy, cholestasis and portal hypertension, were chosen to study the behavioral impairments caused by the disease using an object recognition task. This working memory test is based on a paradigm of spontaneous delayed non-matching to sample and was performed 60 days after surgery. Male Wistar rats (225-250 g) were divided into three groups: two experimental groups, microsurgical cholestasis (N = 20) and extrahepatic portal hypertension (N = 20), and a control group (N = 20). A mild alteration of the recognition memory occurred in rats with cholestasis compared to control rats and portal hypertensive rats. The latter group showed the poorest performance on the basis of the behavioral indexes tested. In particular, only the control group spent significantly more time exploring novel objects compared to familiar ones (P < 0.001). In addition, the portal hypertension group spent the shortest time exploring both the novel and familiar objects (P < 0.001). These results suggest that the existence of portosystemic collateral circulation per se may be responsible for subclinical encephalopathy.

Pharmacology and toxicology of diphenyl diselenide in several biological models

The pharmacology of synthetic organoselenium compounds indicates that they can be used as antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors, neuroprotectors, anti-tumor and anti-infectious agents, and immunomodulators. In this review, we focus on the effects of diphenyl diselenide (DPDS) in various biological model organisms. DPDS possesses antioxidant activity, confirmed in several in vitro and in vivo systems, and thus has a protective effect against hepatic, renal and gastric injuries, in addition to its neuroprotective activity. The activity of the compound on the central nervous system has been studied since DPDS has lipophilic characteristics, increasing adenylyl cyclase activity and inhibiting glutamate and MK-801 binding to rat synaptic membranes. Systemic administration facilitates the formation of long-term object recognition memory in mice and has a protective effect against brain ischemia and on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats. On the other hand, DPDS may be toxic, mainly because of its interaction with thiol groups. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the molecule acts as a pro-oxidant by depleting free glutathione. Administration to mice during cadmium intoxication has the opposite effect, reducing oxidative stress in various tissues. DPDS is a potent inhibitor of d-aminolevulinate dehydratase and chronic exposure to high doses of this compound has central effects on mouse brain, as well as liver and renal toxicity. Genotoxicity of this compound has been assessed in bacteria, haploid and diploid yeast and in a tumor cell line.

Behavioral deficits in sepsis-surviving rats induced by cecal ligation and perforation

Sepsis and its complications are the leading causes of mortality in intensive care units, accounting for 10-50% of deaths. Intensive care unit survivors present long-term cognitive impairment, including alterations in memory, attention, concentration, and/or global loss of cognitive function. In the present study, we investigated behavioral alterations in sepsis-surviving rats. One hundred and ten male Wistar rats (3-4 months, 250-300 g) were submitted to cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), and 44 were submitted to sham operation. Forty-four rats (40%) survived after CLP, and all sham-operated animals survived and were used as control. Twenty animals of each group were used in the object recognition task (10 in short-term memory and 10 in long-term memory), 12 in the plus-maze test and 12 in the forced swimming test. Ten days after surgery, the animals were submitted individually to an object recognition task, plus-maze and forced swimming tests. A significant impairment of short- and long-term recognition memory was observed in the sepsis group (recognition index 0.75 vs 0.55 and 0.74 vs 0.51 for short- and long-term memory, respectively (P < 0.05). In the elevated plus-maze test no difference was observed between groups in any of the parameters assessed. In addition, sepsis survivors presented an increase in immobility time in the forced swimming test (180 vs 233 s, P < 0.05), suggesting the presence of depressive-like symptoms in these animals after recovery from sepsis. The present results demonstrated that rats surviving exposure to CLP, a classical sepsis model, presented recognition memory impairment and depressive-like symptoms but not anxiety-like behavior.

Hardware Accelarated Visual Tracking Algorithms. A Systematic Literature Review

Many industrial applications need object recognition and tracking capabilities. The algorithms developed for those purposes are computationally expensive. Yet ,real time performance, high accuracy and small power consumption are essential measures of the system. When all these requirements are combined, hardware acceleration of these algorithms becomes a feasible solution. The purpose of this study is to analyze the current state of these hardware acceleration solutions, which algorithms have been implemented in hardware and what modifications have been done in order to adapt these algorithms to hardware.

Redundancy gain : manifestations, causes and predictions

Les temps de réponse dans une tache de reconnaissance d’objets visuels diminuent de façon significative lorsque les cibles peuvent être distinguées à partir de deux attributs redondants. Le gain de redondance pour deux attributs est un résultat commun dans la littérature, mais un gain causé par trois attributs redondants n’a été observé que lorsque ces trois attributs venaient de trois modalités différentes (tactile, auditive et visuelle). La présente étude démontre que le gain de redondance pour trois attributs de la même modalité est effectivement possible. Elle inclut aussi une investigation plus détaillée des caractéristiques du gain de redondance. Celles-ci incluent, outre la diminution des temps de réponse, une diminution des temps de réponses minimaux particulièrement et une augmentation de la symétrie de la distribution des temps de réponse. Cette étude présente des indices que ni les modèles de course, ni les modèles de coactivation ne sont en mesure d’expliquer l’ensemble des caractéristiques du gain de redondance. Dans ce contexte, nous introduisons une nouvelle méthode pour évaluer le triple gain de redondance basée sur la performance des cibles doublement redondantes. Le modèle de cascade est présenté afin d’expliquer les résultats de cette étude. Ce modèle comporte plusieurs voies de traitement qui sont déclenchées par une cascade d’activations avant de satisfaire un seul critère de décision. Il offre une approche homogène aux recherches antérieures sur le gain de redondance. L’analyse des caractéristiques des distributions de temps de réponse, soit leur moyenne, leur symétrie, leur décalage ou leur étendue, est un outil essentiel pour cette étude. Il était important de trouver un test statistique capable de refléter les différences au niveau de toutes ces caractéristiques. Nous abordons la problématique d’analyser les temps de réponse sans perte d’information, ainsi que l’insuffisance des méthodes d’analyse communes dans ce contexte, comme grouper les temps de réponses de plusieurs participants (e. g. Vincentizing). Les tests de distributions, le plus connu étant le test de Kolmogorov- Smirnoff, constituent une meilleure alternative pour comparer des distributions, celles des temps de réponse en particulier. Un test encore inconnu en psychologie est introduit : le test d’Anderson-Darling à deux échantillons. Les deux tests sont comparés, et puis nous présentons des indices concluants démontrant la puissance du test d’Anderson-Darling : en comparant des distributions qui varient seulement au niveau de (1) leur décalage, (2) leur étendue, (3) leur symétrie, ou (4) leurs extrémités, nous pouvons affirmer que le test d’Anderson-Darling reconnait mieux les différences. De plus, le test d’Anderson-Darling a un taux d’erreur de type I qui correspond exactement à l’alpha tandis que le test de Kolmogorov-Smirnoff est trop conservateur. En conséquence, le test d’Anderson-Darling nécessite moins de données pour atteindre une puissance statistique suffisante.

Training deep convolutional architectures for vision

Les tâches de vision artificielle telles que la reconnaissance d’objets demeurent irrésolues à ce jour. Les algorithmes d’apprentissage tels que les Réseaux de Neurones Artificiels (RNA), représentent une approche prometteuse permettant d’apprendre des caractéristiques utiles pour ces tâches. Ce processus d’optimisation est néanmoins difficile. Les réseaux profonds à base de Machine de Boltzmann Restreintes (RBM) ont récemment été proposés afin de guider l’extraction de représentations intermédiaires, grâce à un algorithme d’apprentissage non-supervisé. Ce mémoire présente, par l’entremise de trois articles, des contributions à ce domaine de recherche. Le premier article traite de la RBM convolutionelle. L’usage de champs réceptifs locaux ainsi que le regroupement d’unités cachées en couches partageant les même paramètres, réduit considérablement le nombre de paramètres à apprendre et engendre des détecteurs de caractéristiques locaux et équivariant aux translations. Ceci mène à des modèles ayant une meilleure vraisemblance, comparativement aux RBMs entraînées sur des segments d’images. Le deuxième article est motivé par des découvertes récentes en neurosciences. Il analyse l’impact d’unités quadratiques sur des tâches de classification visuelles, ainsi que celui d’une nouvelle fonction d’activation. Nous observons que les RNAs à base d’unités quadratiques utilisant la fonction softsign, donnent de meilleures performances de généralisation. Le dernière article quand à lui, offre une vision critique des algorithmes populaires d’entraînement de RBMs. Nous montrons que l’algorithme de Divergence Contrastive (CD) et la CD Persistente ne sont pas robustes : tous deux nécessitent une surface d’énergie relativement plate afin que leur chaîne négative puisse mixer. La PCD à "poids rapides" contourne ce problème en perturbant légèrement le modèle, cependant, ceci génère des échantillons bruités. L’usage de chaînes tempérées dans la phase négative est une façon robuste d’adresser ces problèmes et mène à de meilleurs modèles génératifs.

Codage de l’information visuelle par la plasticité et la synchronisation des réponses neuronales dans le cortex visuel primaire du chat

Les systèmes sensoriels encodent l’information sur notre environnement sous la forme d’impulsions électriques qui se propagent dans des réseaux de neurones. Élucider le code neuronal – les principes par lesquels l’information est représentée dans l’activité des neurones – est une question fondamentale des neurosciences. Cette thèse constituée de 3 études (E) s’intéresse à deux types de codes, la synchronisation et l’adaptation, dans les neurones du cortex visuel primaire (V1) du chat. Au niveau de V1, les neurones sont sélectifs pour des propriétés comme l’orientation des contours, la direction et la vitesse du mouvement. Chaque neurone ayant une combinaison de propriétés pour laquelle sa réponse est maximale, l’information se retrouve distribuée dans différents neurones situés dans diverses colonnes et aires corticales. Un mécanisme potentiel pour relier l’activité de neurones répondant à des items eux-mêmes reliés (e.g. deux contours appartenant au même objet) est la synchronisation de leur activité. Cependant, le type de relations potentiellement encodées par la synchronisation n’est pas entièrement clair (E1). Une autre stratégie de codage consiste en des changements transitoires des propriétés de réponse des neurones en fonction de l’environnement (adaptation). Cette plasticité est présente chez le chat adulte, les neurones de V1 changeant d’orientation préférée après exposition à une orientation non préférée. Cependant, on ignore si des neurones spatialement proches exhibent une plasticité comparable (E2). Finalement, nous avons étudié la dynamique de la relation entre synchronisation et plasticité des propriétés de réponse (E3). Résultats principaux — (E1) Nous avons montré que deux stimuli en mouvement soit convergent soit divergent élicitent plus de synchronisation entre les neurones de V1 que deux stimuli avec la même direction. La fréquence de décharge n’était en revanche pas différente en fonction du type de stimulus. Dans ce cas, la synchronisation semble coder pour la relation de cocircularité dont le mouvement convergent (centripète) et divergent (centrifuge) sont deux cas particuliers, et ainsi pourrait jouer un rôle dans l’intégration des contours. Cela indique que la synchronisation code pour une information qui n’est pas présente dans la fréquence de décharge des neurones. (E2) Après exposition à une orientation non préférée, les neurones changent d’orientation préférée dans la même direction que leurs voisins dans 75% des cas. Plusieurs propriétés de réponse des neurones de V1 dépendent de leur localisation dans la carte fonctionnelle corticale pour l’orientation. Les comportements plus diversifiés des 25% de neurones restants sont le fait de différences fonctionnelles que nous avons observé et qui suggèrent une localisation corticale particulière, les singularités, tandis que la majorité des neurones semblent situés dans les domaines d’iso-orientation. (E3) Après adaptation, les paires de neurones dont les propriétés de réponse deviennent plus similaires montrent une synchronisation accrue. Après récupération, la synchronisation retourne à son niveau initial. Par conséquent, la synchronisation semble refléter de façon dynamique la similarité des propriétés de réponse des neurones. Conclusions — Cette thèse contribue à notre connaissance des capacités d’adaptation de notre système visuel à un environnement changeant. Nous proposons également des données originales liées au rôle potentiel de la synchronisation. En particulier, la synchronisation semble capable de coder des relations entre objets similaires ou dissimilaires, suggérant l’existence d’assemblées neuronales superposées.