Review of prevalence data in, and evaluation of methods for cross cultural adaptation of, UK surveys on tobacco and alcohol in ethnic minority groups

Objective To assess the adequacy of cross cultural adaptations of survey questions on self reported tobacco and alcohol consumption in the United Kingdom.

Design Assessment of consistency of data between studies identified through literature review. Studies evaluated with 12 guidelines developed from the research literature on achieving cross cultural comparability.

Results The literature review identified 18 key studies, five of them on national samples. Survey instruments were obtained for 15 of these. The comparison of prevalence data in national surveys showed some important discrepancies, greater for tobacco than for alcohol. For example, prevalence of cigarette smoking in Bangladeshi women was 6% in a national survey in 1994 and 1% in a national survey in 1999; in Chinese men it was 31% in a survey in 1993-4 and 17% in one in 1999; in African-Caribbean men it was 29% in a 1992 survey and 42% in one in 1993-4. The most guidelines met by any study was three, although one study partly met a fourth. Two studies met no guidelines. Only four studies consulted with ethnic minority communities in developing the questionnaire, none checked each language version with all others, and two stated the questionnaire had not been validated.

Conclusions Surveys have not followed best practice in relation to measurement of risk factors in cross cultural settings. There is inconsistency in the prevalence data on smoking provided by different major national UK studies. Users of such data should be aware of their limitations. Research is needed to help achieve linguistic equivalence of survey questions in cross cultural research.

Insights from research on cross-cultural validation of health-related questionnaires : the role of bilingual project workers and lay participants

This article discusses the recruitment and training of bilingual project workers and their role in data gathering; the level of comprehension of the interviewees with regard to the nature of the task and its alien nature; the contribution of social customs and expectations; the vagaries of language; the researchers' level of comprehension of data collected across a range of languages; the feelings of loss of control by the researchers over the research process; and issues of communication with bilingual project workers. The authors draw on two studies designed to assess the adequacy of questionnaire translations from English into four ethnic minority languages: Cantonese, Punjabi, Urdu and Sylheti. Bilingual project workers were recruited to carry out interviews and focus groups with the lay communities and to feed back results in English to the researchers. The authors conclude that researchers should be aware of the influence of social and contextual factors when carrying out research with ethnic minority participants mediated by bilingual project workers.

Cross-cultural methodological issues in ethical research

Despite the fundamental and administrative difficulties associated with cross-cultural research the rewards are significant and, given an increasing trend toward globalisation, the move away from singular location studies to more comparative research is to be encouraged. In order to facilitate this research process it is imperative, however, that considerable attention is given to the methodological issues that can beset cross-cultural research, specifically as these issues relate to the primary domain or discipline of investigation, which in this instance is research on business ethics. Utilising the experience of a four country comparative study of both Asian and Western cultures in the field of business ethics, the following presents a discussion of methodological concerns under the three broad areas of operationalising culture, operationalising business ethics, and data interpretation.

Cross-cultural assumptions about perception and identity in western socio-legal frameworks

Socio-legal analysis has relied heavily on Mnookin and Kornhauser's "bargaining in the shadow of the law" and Galanter's "litigotiation" concepts. These concepts provide a framework for examining the relationship between formal legal rules and other normative sources in out-of-court activity. In this paper we explore the extent to which these frameworks' Western assumptions about individualism, conflict and the rule of law would require adaptation if they were to be used to examine such phenomena in Chinese culture or in Australian-Chinese negotiations. In particular, we focus on the "difference" between: i) China and Confucian culture; and ii) Western society in terms of the Confucian principles relating to hierarchy, harmony, collectivism and face. These principles have fundamental implications for Chinese perceptions of appropriate dispute resolution behaviour. Western researchers who omit consideration of these perceptions and neglect the defining characteristics of Chinese identity will emerge with flawed projects.

Cross-cultural issues in the supervision of a Chinese socio-legal PhD student

The purpose of this co-authored paper is to explain how culturally specific features of Chinese students impact on the processes by which they commence their socio-legal research degrees by research candidature. The presentation by the co-authors of the paper will include a simulation of the first meeting between the candidate and the supervisor. This simulation will show how specific features of Chinese culture and the Chinese education system create a massive culture shock when Chinese research students are exposed to Anglo-Australian academic culture. We will explain how the underlying principles of Chinese culture impact on the candidate‘s expectations in relation to: the role of the supervisor; the requirement of original contribution; expectations in feedback on written work and communication more generally . We will then propose strategies for reducing the impact of culture shock and improving the experience of the candidature and the performance from each party to the relationship in terms of timely completions and reduced attrition. These strategies derive from the authors‘ experience in relation to doctoral research management and cross-cultural communication.

Children’s preferences for group musical activities in child care centres : a cross-cultural study

This paper reports on a cross-cultural research study of children’s preferences for group musical activities in child care centres. A total of 228 young children aged 4–5 years in seven child care centres in Hong Kong and in the Adelaide City of South Australia participated in the study. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected via a mixed method approach. Result showed that dancing/moving was children’s most preferred musical activity in centres. Significant differences were found between children’s cultural contexts and their preferences for three activities: (1) Singing; (2) Listening; and (3) Playing instruments. Qualitative data further revealed the social phenomena of these two cultural contexts which influenced children’s preferences. Implications for the curriculum planning of early childhood music education arising from these findings are discussed.

Reconstructing Aboriginal identity : a social-political case-study in curriculum change

This paper locates the development of Aboriginal Studies curricula within the context of Aboriginal political activism and 20th century reconstruction of Aboriginal identity in Australia. It is suggested that the incorporation of the reconstructed Aboriginal identity in Aboriginal Studies curricula institutionalised a radical conceptual change. Using the senior secondary Aboriginal Studies curriculum as an example, it is argued that unresolved tensions exist in the syllabus, the conceptualisation of community and the social process of identity formation inherent in recent reconstructions of Aboriginal identity. The question posed is whether these tensions will ultimately act as a form of oppression for Aboriginal people in the cross-cultural environment of contemporary Australia.

Developing a culturally-specific peace curriculum for Vietnamese primary schools : a case study of participatory action research in cross-cultural design

In 2003 the International Conflict Resolution Centre at the University of Melbourne, Australia, produced a primary school teaching manual for UNESCO Vietnam in consultation with ASP schoolteachers and principals. The finished manual included lessons plans and materials for a five year, 50 lesson peace education course. The Manual is one of the first examples of a systematic core national curriculum in peace education worldwide.

Development of the Teaching Manual posed a number of challenges including differences in language, culture, government and education system. To meet these challenges, a Participatory Action Research approach was central in the project’s development and curriculum design. This case study is offered as a model for effective cross-cultural curriculum development of peace education materials. In particular, the creation of a systematic core course in peace education and the use of UNESCO’s peace keys are outlined as innovative aspects of the project.

Museum development and cross-cultural learning in the Kelabit Highlands, Borneo

The article discusses an aspect of the first phase of the Kelabit Highlands Museum Development Project. Deakin University and the Rurum Kelabit Sarawak collaborated in a field school for post-graduate cultural heritage and museums studies students that was held in Bario in June 2012. The article provides details about the learning framework and research activities that were designed to facilitate exchange and cross-cultural learning between the students and local participants.

Statistical approaches to testing the relationships of the built environment with resident-level physical activity behavior and health outcomes in cross-sectional studies with cluster sampling

To achieve valid conclusions, studies exploring associations of the built environment with residents' physical activity and health-related outcomes need to employ statistical approaches accounting for clustered data. This article discusses the following main statistical approaches: analysis of covariance, regression models with robust standard errors, generalized estimating equations, and multilevel generalized linear models. The choice of a statistical method depends on the characteristics of the study and research questions. While the first three approaches are employed to account for clustering in the data, multilevel models can also help unravel more substantive issues within a social ecological theoretical framework of health behavior.

Development and evaluation of a teaching and learning approach in cross-cultural care and antidiscrimination in university nursing students

Background:
Cross-cultural care and antidiscrimination are vital to ethical effective health systems. Nurses require quality educational preparation in cross-cultural care and antidiscrimination. Limited evidence-based research is available to guide teachers.

Objectives:
To develop, implement and evaluate an evidence-based teaching and learning approach in cross-cultural care and antidiscrimination for undergraduate nursing students.

Design:
A quantitative design using pre- and post-survey measures was used to evaluate the teaching and learning approach.

Settings:
The Bachelor of Nursing program in an Australian university.

Participants:
Academics and second year undergraduate nursing students.

Methods:
A literature review and consultation with academics informed the development of the teaching and learning approach. Thirty-three students completed a survey at pre-measures and following participation in the teaching and learning approach at post-measures about their confidence to practice cross-cultural nursing (Transcultural Self-efficacy Tool) and about their discriminatory attitudes (Quick Discrimination Index).

Results:
The literature review found that educational approaches that solely focus on culture might not be sufficient in addressing discrimination and racism. During consultation, academics emphasised the importance of situating cross-cultural nursing and antidiscrimination as social determinants of health. Therefore, cross-cultural nursing was contextualised within primary health care and emphasised care for culturally diverse communities. Survey findings supported the effectiveness of this strategy in promoting students' confidence regarding knowledge about cross-cultural nursing. There was no reported change in discriminatory attitudes. The teaching and learning approach was modified to include stronger experiential learning and role playing.

Conclusions:
Nursing education should emphasise cross-cultural nursing and antidiscrimination. The study describes an evaluated teaching and learning approach and demonstrates how evaluation research can be used to develop cross-cultural nursing education interventions.

A cross-cultural study investigating body features associated with male adolescents' body dissatisfaction in Australia, China, and Malaysia

This study investigated how dissatisfaction with particular aspects of the body was associated with overall body dissatisfaction among male adolescents in Western and Asian cultures. One hundred and six Malaysian Malays, 55 Malaysian Chinese, 195 Chinese from China, and 45 non-Asian Australians aged 12 to 19 years completed a questionnaire assessing dissatisfaction with their overall body and dissatisfaction with varying aspects of their body. Dissatisfaction with the face, height, and hair was positively correlated with overall body dissatisfaction among Malaysian Malays after body mass index, age and dissatisfaction with body areas typically included in measures (weight/shape, upper, middle, and lower body, and muscles) had been controlled for. Dissatisfaction with the face was positively correlated with overall body dissatisfaction among Malaysian Chinese. These findings demonstrate the differences in body focus for males from different cultures and the importance of using assessment measures that address all possible areas of body focus.

A Cross-Cultural Evaluation of the Personal Wellbeing Index – School Children in Samples of Australian and Portuguese Adolescents

The practice of comparing nations on subjective wellbeing (SWB) is becoming commonplace, with many countries ranked by economists and social scientists alike according to average levels of SWB based on survey responses. Such large, multi-national population surveys have the potential to generate insights into the causes and correlates of SWB within different cultural groups, as well as inform policy regarding how to improve the wellbeing of citizens. At the heart of these large-scale research endeavors are SWB measures that function equivalently between the various participating cultural groups. For this reason, it is concerning that their remains a paucity of research that supports measurement equivalence for many SWB instruments commonly employed. Thus, it remains unclear whether variations in SWB across cultures reflect true differences, or whether these differences reflect measurement biases (e.g., response bias inherent within a particular cultural group). The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric equivalence of the Personal Wellbeing Index–School Children (PWI-SC) in convenience samples of Australian and Portuguese adolescents using multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis. Participants comprising the Australian sample were 1104 Victorian high-school students aged between 12 and 19 years (M = 14.42, SD = 1.63). Participants comprising the Portuguese sample were 573 high-school students living in Portugal aged between 12 and 18 years (M = 14.32, SD = 1.72). The results demonstrated strict factorial invariance between both versions of the PWI-SC, suggesting that this scale measures the same underlying construct in both samples. Moreover, these findings provide preliminary support for quantitative comparisons between Australian and Portuguese adolescents on the SWB variable as valid.