HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF ORANGE PULP AND PEEL

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Citrus pulp and enzyme complex for growing and finishing pigs

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Lignin chemistry and topochemistry during kraft delignification of Eucalyptus globulus genotypes with contrasting pulpwood characteristics

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Weight concerns scale applied to college students: comparison between pencil-and-paper and online formats

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Black liquor gasification combined cycle with CO2 capture-Technical and economic analysis

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Diabetes triggers the loss of tooth structure associated to radiographical and histological dental changes and its evolution to progressive pulp and periapical lesions in rats

The aim of this study was to evaluate the putative influence of diabetes without metabolic control in the loss of tooth structure as well as histological changes in dentin and pulp tissue in rats. Diabetes was induced in Wistar rats (n=25) by intravenous administration of alloxan (42mg/kg). Diabetic and non-diabetic control rats were evaluated at 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of follow-up. In order to evaluate the presence and progression of dental caries and periapical lesions, hemimandibles were removed and submitted to radiographical, histological, and morphometrical procedures. Dental caries were detected after radiographical and histological evaluations in diabetic group from the third month of diabetes onset, increasing gradually in frequency and severity in periods. Diabetic rats dental pulps also presented significant reduction in volume density of collagen fibers and fibroblasts at third month, parallel with a trend towards the increase in inflammatory cells volume density. Diabetic rats presented a generalized pulp tissue necrosis after 6 months of diabetes induction. Moreover, periapical lesions were not detected in control group, while these lesions were observed in all rats after 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of diabetes induction. Uncontrolled diabetes seems to trigger the loss of tooth structure, associated to histological dental changes and mediates its evolution to progressive severe pulp and periapical lesions in rats. Therefore, diabetes may be considered a very important risk factor regarding alterations in dental pulp, development of dental caries, and periapical lesions.

Sanitizers effect in mango pulp and peel antioxidant compounds

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase and cytotoxic activities of ethanol extracts of peel, pulp and seeds of exotic Brazilian fruits Antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase and cytotoxic activities in fruits

Ethanol extracts of powdered genipap (Genipa americana L), umbu (Spondia tuberosa A.) and siriguela (Spondia purpurea L) prepared from separate pulp, seeds and peel were investigated for their (i) antioxidant capacity, which was evaluated by various known methods; (ii) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity; and (iii) cytotoxic effect on corneal epithelial cells of sheep. The highest values of total phenolic content were obtained with peel and seed extracts. Siriguela and umbu (seeds and peel) extracts displayed the highest antioxidant activities. Lipid peroxidation assays using mimetic biomembranes and mouse liver homogenates indicated that genipap pulp is a promising antioxidant. The investigation of phenols and organic acid contents revealed the presence of quercetin, citric and quinic acids, chlorogenic acid derivatives, among others, in several extracts, with the highest amount found in siriguela seeds. Genipap pulp and siriguela seed ethanol extracts presented an AChE inhibition zone similar to that of the positive control, carbachol. AChE inhibition assay with chlorogenic acid, one of the main constituents of siriguela seeds, revealed that this acid showed activity similar to that of the control physostigmine. These data suggest that these extracts are potentially important antioxidant supplements for the everyday human diet, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Antioxidant capacity and mineral content of pulp and peel from commercial cultivars of citrus from Brazil

Four Citrus species (C. sinensis, cvs. Pera and Lima; C. latifolia Tanaka cv. Tahiti; C limettioides Tanaka cv. Sweet lime and C. reticulate, cv. Ponkan) grown in Brazil were characterised in relation to contents of minerals, ascorbic acid, total polyphenols and antioxidant capacity of pulps and peels. In general, the peels demonstrated significantly higher contents of all compounds than the pulps (p < 0.05), with the exception of the Pera orange pulp that presented the highest acid ascorbic content (68 mg/100 ml), while the Tahiti lime peel presented the lowest (8 mg/100 g). Citrus showed high levels of potassium, calcium and magnesium, and the peels were considered sources of these minerals. The Ponkan mandarin peel presented the highest antioxidant capacity. The antioxidant capacity of citrus was correlated both to vitamin C and phenolics. Aside from citrus pulps, the peels are also good sources of bioactive compounds and minerals, and can be explored for their health promoting values in food products. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Pulp and periodontal healing of laterally luxated permanent teeth: results after 4 years

AIM: To evaluate the pulp and periodontal healing of laterally luxated permanent teeth. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Patients presenting with lateral luxation of permanent teeth during 2001-2002 were enrolled in this clinical study. Laterally luxated teeth were repositioned and splinted with a TTS/composite resin splint for 4 weeks. Immediate (prophylactic) root-canal treatment was performed in severely luxated teeth with radiographically closed apices. All patients received tetracycline for 10 days. Re-examinations were performed after 1, 2, 3, 6, 12 and 48 months. RESULTS: All 47 laterally luxated permanent teeth that could be followed over the entire study period survived. In 10 teeth (21.3%), a prophylactic root-canal treatment was performed within 2 weeks following injury. The remaining 37 teeth showed the following characteristics at the 4-year re-examination: 19 teeth (51.4%) had pulp survival (no clinical or radiographic signs or symptoms), nine teeth (24.3%) presented with pulp canal calcification, and pulp necrosis was seen in another nine teeth (24.3%), within the first year after trauma. None of the teeth with a radiographically open apex at the time of lateral luxation showed complications. External root resorption was only seen in one tooth. CONCLUSIONS: Laterally luxated permanent teeth with incomplete root formation have a good prognosis, with all teeth surviving in this study. The most frequent complication was pulp necrosis that was only seen in teeth with closed apices.

Kinetic characterization for pretreatment of timber varieties and switchgrass using diluted acid hydrolysis

In recent years, growing attention has been devoted to the use of lignocellulosic biomass as a feedstock to produce renewable carbohydrates as a source of energy products, including liquid alternatives to fossil fuels. The benefits of developing woody biomass to ethanol technology are to increase the long-term national energy security, reduce fossil energy consumption, lower greenhouse gas emissions, use renewable rather than depletable resources, and create local jobs. Currently, research is driven by the need to reduce the cost of biomass-ethanol production. One of the preferred methods is to thermochemically pretreat the biomass material and subsequently, enzymatically hydrolyze the pretreated material to fermentable sugars that can then be converted to ethanol using specialized microorganisms. The goals of pretreatment are to remove the hemicellulose fraction from other biomass components, reduce bioconversion time, enhance enzymatic conversion of the cellulose fraction, and, hopefully, obtain a higher ethanol yield. The primary goal of this research is to obtain kinetic detailed data for dilute acid hydrolysis for several timber species from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and switchgrass. These results will be used to identify optimum reaction conditions to maximize production of fermentable sugars and minimize production of non-fermentable byproducts. The structural carbohydrate analysis of the biomass species used in this project was performed using the procedure proposed by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). Subsequently, dilute acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of biomass, including aspen, basswood, balsam, red maple, and switchgrass, was studied at various temperatures, acid concentrations, and particle sizes in a 1-L well-mixed batch reactor (Parr Instruments, ii Model 4571). 25 g of biomass and 500 mL of diluted acid solution were added into a 1-L glass liner, and then put into the reactor. During the experiment, 5 mL samples were taken starting at 100°C at 3 min intervals until reaching the targeted temperature (160, 175, or 190°C), followed by 4 samples after achieving the desired temperature. The collected samples were then cooled in an ice bath immediately to stop the reaction. The cooled samples were filtered using 0.2 μm MILLIPORE membrane filter to remove suspended solids. The filtered samples were then analyzed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a Bio-Rad Aminex HPX-87P column, and refractive index detection to measure monomeric and polymeric sugars plus degradation byproducts. A first order reaction model was assumed and the kinetic parameters such as activation energy and pre-exponential factor from Arrhenius equation were obtained from a match between the model and experimental data. The reaction temperature increases linearly after 40 minutes during experiments. Xylose and other sugars were formed from hemicellulose hydrolysis over this heat up period until a maximum concentration was reached at the time near when the targeted temperature was reached. However, negligible amount of xylose byproducts and small concentrations of other soluble sugars, such as mannose, arabinose, and galactose were detected during this initial heat up period. Very little cellulose hydrolysis yielding glucose was observed during the initial heat up period. On the other hand, later in the reaction during the constant temperature period xylose was degraded to furfural. Glucose production from cellulose was increased during this constant temperature period at later time points in the reaction. The kinetic coefficient governing the generation of xylose from hemicellulose and the generation of furfural from xylose presented a coherent dependence on both temperature and acid concentration. However, no effect was observed in the particle size. There were three types of biomass used in this project; hardwood (aspen, basswood, and red maple), softwood (balsam), and a herbaceous crop (switchgrass). The activation energies and the pre-exponential factors of the timber species and switchgrass were in a range of 49 - 180 kJ/mol and from 7.5x104 - 2.6x1020 min-1, respectively, for the xylose formation model. In addition, for xylose degradation, the activation energies and the preexponential factors ranged from 130 - 170 kJ/mol and from 6.8x1013 - 3.7x1017 min-1, respectively. The results compare favorably with the literature values given by Ranganathan et al, 1985. Overall, up to 92 % of the xylose was able to generate from the dilute acid hydrolysis in this project.

PROFILE AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE OF LOGGERS

RESUMO – Objetivou-se com este estudo caracterizar o perfil e avaliar o nível de satisfação que reflete na qualidade de vida no trabalho (QVT) de trabalhadores da colheita de madeira de duas contratadas (C1 e C2), por duas grandes empresas do setor florestal, sendo uma do segmento de papel e celulose (PC) e, a outra, do segmento de carvão vegetal (CV). A avaliação ocorreu a partir da percepção dos trabalhadores das contratadas em questão, utilizando um modelo pré-concebido que contempla 11 blocos ou dimensões referentes a variáveis intervenientes e definidores da QVT, englobando 48 trabalhadores em três categorias funcionais: operador de motosserra (7 trabalhadores da C1 PC e 10 da C2 CV), ajudante de motosserrista (7 trabalhadores da C1 PC e 8 da C2 CV) e operador de carregador florestal (11 trabalhadores da C1 PC e 5 da C2 CV). Os dados referentes às variáveis intervenientes na QVT foram obtidos a partir de escala fechada do tipo Likert, com os escores variando de 1 a 7, em que 1 correspondeu ao nível "bastante insatisfeito" e 7, ao nível "bastante satisfeito". O perfil dos trabalhadores é de pessoa jovem, baixo nível de escolaridade e pouco tempo de serviço na empresa. Quanto ao nível de satisfação no trabalho, constatou-se que os trabalhadores da C1 PC se encontravam "satisfeitos" e os da C2 CV, "mediamente satisfeitos" com o trabalho e as condições proporcionadas pelas respectivas empresas, apesar de estatisticamente não ter sido detectada diferença entre os valores médios encontrados nas duas situações, pelo teste de Mediana (P>0,01). Os fatores que mais contribuíram para esses resultados favoráveis foram os benefícios extras oferecidos pelas prestadoras de serviços, as condições de segurança no trabalho e o contentamento com o emprego formal. ABSTRACT – The objective of this study was to characterize profile and satisfaction level, which reflects the quality of life (QOL) of forest workers of two contracts for harvest activities, one in the pulp and paper industry (PI) and another in charcoal industry (CI). The evaluation of the satisfaction indexes was carried out according to the workers perception by using a model including 11 parameters to reflect these workers QOL. The group study of 48 workers encompassed three functional categories: chainsaw operators (7 from C1 and 10 from C2), chainsaw operator's assistant (7 from C1 and 8 from C2), and log loader operators (11 from C1 and 5 from C2). Data regarding the factors involved in QOL were collected from a closed, Likert-type scale with scores ranging from 1-7, in which level 1 corresponded to "very dissatisfied" and level 7 to "very satisfied". The general profile of the group shows that most of them are young, with low level of education and employed in the companies for a short time. Overall, the employees of contractors of the paper and pulp industry are "satisfied" and those working for the charcoal company are only "moderately satisfied" with the work and policies offered by the respective companies, although no significant statistical difference was detected between the two groups, for the median test (P> 0.01). The main reasons behind these results are the general beneficts offered by the companies, the safety measurements and the overall satisfaction for been employed.

Effects of nutrition on digestión efficicency and gaseous emissions from slurry in growing-finishing pigs. I. Influence of the inclusión of two levels of orange pulp and carb meal in isofibrous diets

An experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of increasing the level of two sources of fibrous by-products, orange pulp (OP) and carob meal (CM), in iso-NDF growing-finishing pig diets on nutrient balance, slurry composition and potential ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) emissions. Thirty pigs (85.4 ± 12.3 kg) were fed five iso-nutritive diets: a commercial control wheat/barley (C) and four experimental diets including two sources of fibrous by-products (OP and CM) and two dietary levels (75 and 150 g/kg) in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. After a 14-day adaptation period, faeces and urine were collected separately for 7 days to measure nutrient digestibility and the excretory patterns of N from pigs (6 replicates per diet) housed individually in metabolic pens. For each animal, the derived NH3 and CH4 emissions were measured in samples of slurry over an 11- and 100-day storage periods, respectively. Source and level of the fibrous by-products affected digestion efficiency in a different way as the coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) for dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), fibre fractions and gross energy increased with OP but decreased with CM (P < 0.05). Crude protein CTTAD decreased with the inclusion of both sources of fibre, being lower at the highest dietary level. Faecal concentration of fibre fractions increased (P < 0.05) with the level of inclusion of CM but decreased with that of OP (P < 0.01). High dietary level for both sources of fibre increased (P < 0.02) CP faecal content but urine N content decreased (from 205 to 168 g/kg DM, P < 0.05) in all the fibre-supplemented compared to C diet. Additionally, the proportions of undigested dietary, water soluble, and bacterial and endogenous debris of faecal N excretion were not affected by treatments. The initial slurry characteristics did not differ among different fibre sources and dietary levels, except pH, which decreased at the highest by-product inclusion levels. Ammonia emission per kg of slurry was lower in all the fibre-supplemented diets than in C diet (from 2.44 to 1.81 g, P < 0.05). Additionally, slurries from the highest dietary level of by-products tended (P < 0.06) to emit less NH3 per kg of initial total Kjeldahl N and showed a lower B0, independently of the fibre source. Thus, the fibre sources and their dietary levels affected pig nutrient digestion and composition of urine and faeces, showing potential to decrease NH3 and CH4 emissions at high levels of inclusion, independently of type of fibre.

Definición de los procedimientos e indicadores de la cadena de custodia de la industria de pasta y papel vinculados a la normativa ISO 9000/14000

En el trabajo se ha reflejado la génesis del término „desarrollo sostenible‟ y la preocupación social y de los gobiernos hacia la sostenibilidad de los recursos, generando una política forestal a escala internacional, cuyo hito inicial desempeña la Cumbre de Rio y otros procesos, donde surge el término „sostenibilidad‟ - procesos gubernamentales que ponen su atención en los bosques,entre ellos el Proceso paneuropeo del que emanan los Criterios e indicadores de la gestión forestal sostenible, así como otros foros donde aparece la vinculación entre los productos y la sostenibilidad de los bosques de donde proceden. A partir de esos conceptos aparecen los sistemas de certificación, primero FSC, promovido por las ONG ambientalistas, y en respuesta a ello, el sistema PEFC de los propietarios forestales privados con las industrias forestales. En su introducción, el trabajo recoge como surge y evoluciona esta preocupación y como se sucede y desarrollan los sistemas de certificación en España, orientados tanto a la superficie forestal como a sus productos derivados. Tratando de ser una herramienta técnica, en estos últimos quince años, se han ido planteando metodologías y propuestas técnicas que puedan garantizar el origen sostenible del bosque de donde procede la materia prima. Aunque la persistencia de la masa forestal como término tiene importancia, no considera numerosos aspectos incluidos en el concepto “gestión forestal sostenible”. El trabajo manifiesta qué es y cómo se origina la Gestión Forestal Sostenible y muy ligado con ello, el origen de la certificación como herramienta, explicando cómo se incardina la certificación forestal española con las estructuras internacionales y se construyen nuevas estructuras a escala española y autonómica. Se expone el dominio y alcance técnico de la certificación, sus inicios y un análisis de la diversidad de sistemas y etiquetas existentes -como ha ido evolucionando a escala internacional y nacional, por sistemas, sectores y continentes, con especial atención en España, recopilando lo sucedido relevante para el sector forestal, industrias forestales y sistemas de certificación en los años de estudio de elaboración de la tesis. Se refleja la relevancia que adquiere la certificación forestal y de la cadena de custodia para la industria del papel, tanto por las regulaciones, normativas y legislación que involucran al producto derivado del bosque como por ser herramienta que enlaza el bosque sostenible con el consumidor. La aplicación de todas esas especificaciones técnicas que muestran la sostenibilidad del bosque y al trazabilidad en el proceso productivo comporta una carga administrativa de recopilación de información, de control para el seguimiento asociado con los registros necesarios, y de archivo de documentos, conforme a las exigencias que plantean los sistemas de certificación forestal. Por tanto, es importante definir un método y procedimientos genéricos para los correspondientes sistemas de gestión preexistentes en las empresas del sector de pasta y papel (de calidad/ de medio ambiente/integrados), para implantar un Sistema de Cadena de Custodia genérico (común a FSC y PEFC) en una instalación de celulosa y papel y un sistema de diligencia debida. Para ello, ha sido necesario analizar la línea de producción y establecer los puntos de su diagrama en los que se requiere el control de la trazabilidad, puntos en los que se procede al seguimiento y registro de la materia prima, materia semielaborada y producto, y de ahí proceder a redactar o retocar los procedimientos de gestión calidad/ medioambiental, en su caso, para incluir los campos de registro. Según determinen los procedimientos, se efectuará un seguimiento y registro de los, derivados que configuran una característica y se determinará una serie de indicadores del sistema de trazabilidad de la madera en la industria de celulosa y papel, es decir, un conjunto de parámetros cuantitativos y descriptivos, sujetos al seguimiento de forma periódica, que muestren el cambio y permitan observar la evaluación y control del Sistema de Cadena de Custodia. Además de asegurar la trazabilidad de la madera y fibra en la industria de pasta y papel y con ello la sostenibilidad del bosque del que procede, se avalará la legalidad de los aprovechamientos que proporcionan ese recurso maderable, cumpliendo así no sólo la legislación vigente sino también ambos sistemas de certificación FSC y PEFC. El sistema de cadena de custodia de la pasta y papel se caracteriza por los indicadores de seguimiento que permite el control de la trazabilidad. ABSTRACT This paper traces the origins of the term „Sustainable Development‟ and of both citizen and institutional concern for the sustainability of resources, leading to the enactment of a forestry policy at international level, of which the initial milestones are the Rio Summit and other processes in which the term „Sustainability‟ was born. Those forestfocused institutional initiatives include the pan-European process that led to the publication of Sustainable Forest Management Criteria and Indicators, and other forums that highlight the link between finished wood-based products and the sustainability of the forests from which that wood is sourced. Those concepts were the culture in which forest certification systems were engendered, first FSC, promoted by environmental NGOs, and subsequently PEFC, fostered in response to FSC by private forest owners and forest-based industries. In its Introduction, this paper looks at how such concern arose and has evolved and how certification systems came into existence in Spain and developed to encompass both forest lands and forest-based products. As part of a mission to provide an applicable technical tool, new methodologies and technical proposals have been put forward over the past fifteen years aimed at guaranteeing the sustainable origin of the forest from which raw material is sourced. Although the maintenance of forest stands as a term in its own right is important, it does not take many of the aspects included in the concept of “sustainable forest management” into account. This thesis describes what SFM is and how it was born, underlying the close link between SFM and the origin of certification as a tool, explaining how Spanish forest certification is embodied in international structures, while new structures are built here in Spain on both the national and regional scale. This work also details the domain and scope of forest certification from the technical standpoint, explains its beginnings, and assesses the various systems and labels that exist - how certification has evolved internationally and nationally across systems, sectors and continents, with special emphasis on Spain. It provides a compilation of events relevant to forestry, forest industries and forest certification systems that have taken place during the years this thesis has been in preparation. It reflects on the relevance that forest and chain of custody certification holds for the paper industry, in view not only of the regulations, policies and legislation that affect forest-based products but also of its role as a tool that bonds the sustainable forest with the consumer. Implementing the range of technical specifications to demonstrate forest sustainability and traceability throughout the production process entails the administrative burden of collecting information and providing controls to process the relevant records and documents to be kept on file in compliance with the requirements made by forest certification schemes. It is therefore important to define a generic method, together with its relevant procedures,that fits the management systems (quality / environmental / integrated)existing today in pulp and paper companies, in order to implement a generic Chain of Custody scheme (common to FSC and PEFC) in a pulp and paper mill, and a due diligence system. To achieve that, it has first been necessary to analyse the production line and establish points along the route where traceabilitycontrols need to be implemented and points where raw material, semi-finished goods and end products should be monitored and recorded. Subsequently, the procedures in quality / environmental management systems need to be drafted or amended as required to include fields that reflect those records. As required by the procedures, forest-based products that have a specific characteristic shall be monitored and recorded, and a number of indicators identified in the traceability system of wood for pulp & paper, i.e.createa set of quantitative and descriptive parameters subject to regular monitoringthat reveal changes and enable the Chain of Custody system to be assessed and controlled. In addition to ensuring the traceability of wood and fibre in the pulp and paper industry -and so the sustainability of the forest from which it is sourced -, the legality of the harvesting that produces that timber will also be enhanced, thus fulfilling not only the law but also both FSC and PEFC certification schemes. The chain of custody system for pulp and paper is characterised by monitoring indicators that enable traceability to be controlled.

NaOH and KOH for preparing activated carbons used in energy and environmental applications

Alkaline hydroxides, especially sodium and potassium hydroxides, are multi-million-ton per annum commodities and strong chemical bases that have large scale applications. Some of them are related with their consequent ability to degrade most materials, depending on the temperature used. As an example, these chemicals are involved in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, biodiesels, soaps and detergents, acid gases removal (e.g., SO2) and others, as well as in many organic synthesis processes. Sodium and potassium hydroxides are strong and corrosive bases, but they are also very stable chemicals that can melt without decomposition, NaOH at 318ºC, and KOH at 360ºC. Hence, they can react with most materials, even with relatively inert ones such as carbon materials. Thus, at temperatures higher than 360ºC these melted hydroxides easily react with most types of carbon-containing raw materials (coals, lignocellulosic materials, pitches, etc.), as well as with most pure carbon materials (carbon fibers, carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes). This reaction occurs via a solid-liquid redox reaction in which both hydroxides (NaOH or KOH) are converted to the following main products: hydrogen, alkaline metals and alkaline carbonates, as a result of the carbon precursor oxidation. By controlling this reaction, and after a suitable washing process, good quality activated carbons (ACs), a classical type of porous materials, can be prepared. Such carbon activation by hydroxides, known since long time ago, continues to be under research due to the unique properties of the resulting activated carbons. They have promising high porosity developments and interesting pore size distributions. These two properties are important for new applications such as gas storage (e.g., natural gas or hydrogen), capture, storage and transport of carbon dioxide, electricity storage demands (EDLC-supercapacitors-) or pollution control. Because these applications require new and superior quality activated carbons, there is no doubt that among the different existing activating processes, the one based on the chemical reaction between the carbon precursor and the alkaline hydroxide (NaOH or KOH) gives the best activation results. The present article covers different aspects of the activation by hydroxides, including the characteristics of the resulting activated carbons and their performance in some environment-related applications. The following topics are discussed: i) variables of the preparation method, such as the nature of the hydroxide, the type of carbon precursor, the hydroxide/carbon precursor ratio, the mixing procedure of carbon precursor and hydroxide (impregnation of the precursor with a hydroxide solution or mixing both, hydroxide and carbon precursor, as solids), or the temperature and time of the reaction are discussed, analyzing their effect on the resulting porosity; ii) analysis of the main reactions occurring during the activation process, iii) comparative analysis of the porosity development obtained from different activation processes (e.g., CO2, steam, phosphoric acid and hydroxides activation); and iv) performance of the prepared activated carbon materials on a few applications, such as VOC removal, electricity and gas storages.