Information-dependent processes in incubated and graduated technology-based companies: a comparative case study

Nowadays, competitiveness introduces new behaviors and leads companies to a discomforting situation and often to non adaptation to environmental requirements. A growing number of challenges associated with control of information in organizations with engineering activities can be seen, particularly, the growing amount of information subject to continuous changes. The innovative performance of an organization is directly proportional to its ability to manage information. Thus, the importance of information management is recognized by the search for more competent ways to face current demands. The purpose of this article was to analyze informationdependent processes in technology-based companies, through the four major stages of information management. The comparative method of cases and qualitative research were used. The research was conducted in nine technology-based companies which were incubated or recently went through the incubating process at the Technological Park of Sao Carlos, in the state of Sao Paulo. Among the main results, it was found that in graduated companies information management and its procedures were identified as more conscious and structured in contrast to those of the incubated companies.

An Innovation System Perspective on Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability and Water Management in India

Government policies play a critical role in influencing market conditions, institutions and overall agricultural productivity. The thesis therefore looks into the history of agriculture development in India. Taking a political economy perspective, the historical account looks at significant institutional and technological innovations carried out in pre- independent and post independent India. It further focuses on the Green Revolution in Asia, as forty years after; the agricultural community still faces the task of addressing recurrent issue of food security amidst emerging challenges, such as climate change. It examines the Green Revolution that took place in India during the late 1960s and 70s in a historical perspective, identifying two factors of institutional change and political leadership. Climate change in agriculture development has become a major concern to farmers, researchers and policy makers alike. However, there is little knowledge on the farmers’ perception to climate change and to the extent they coincide with actual climatic data. Using a qualitative approach,it looks into the perceptions of the farmers in four villages in the states of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. While exploring the adaptation strategies, the chapter looks into the dynamics of who can afford a particular technology and who cannot and what leads to a particular adaptation decision thus determining the adaptive capacity in water management. The final section looks into the devolution of authority for natural resource management to local user groups through the Water Users’ Associations as an important approach to overcome the long-standing challenges of centralized state bureaucracies in India. It addresses the knowledge gap of why some local user groups are able to overcome governance challenges such as elite capture, while others-that work under the design principles developed by Elinor Ostrom. It draws conclusions on how local leadership, can be promoted to facilitate participatory irrigation management.

Traditional Building Adaptation to New Requirements: Historic Center of Arequipa, Perú

The traditional buildings in the historic center of the city of Arequipa, Perú, recently declared of human heritage, are of volcanic tuff both in walls and in vaulted roofs on the ground floor. Having been built in the 18th century and up to the beginning of the 20th century, they have suffered many damages from the seismic movements registered in this region. Due to this, many of them have had to be rebuilt. In this presentation, the different changes to adapt the city of Spanish colonial origin to the present tertiary use are analyzed.

An Analysis of the Influence of Students´ Technological Culture on Their Technology

decade has raised the interest among the research community on the acceptance and use of these systems by both teachers and students. At first, the implementation of LMS was based on their technical design and the adaptation of the learning processes to the virtual environment, neglecting students’ characteristics when the systems were deployed, which led to expensive and failing implementations. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) proposes a framework which allows the study of the acceptance and use of technology that takes into consideration the students’ characteristics and how they affect the acceptance and the degree of use of educational technology. This study questions the role of the user’s attitude towards use of LMS and uses the UTAUT to examine the moderating effect of technological culture in the adoption of LMS in Spain. The results from the comparison and analysis of three different models confirm the relevance of attitude towards use as an antecedent of intention to use the system, as well as the important moderating effect of gender and technological culture. The discussion of results suggests the need for a more in-depth analysis and interrelations of cultural dimensions in the adoption of educational technologies and learning management systems

Drivers in adopting adaptation strategies to face increased water scarcity in agriculture. A case study in Doñana (Spain) and Makueni (Kenya)

La agricultura es uno de los sectores más afectados por el cambio climático. A pesar de haber demostrado a lo largo de la historia una gran capacidad para adaptarse a nuevas situaciones, hoy en día la agricultura se enfrenta a nuevos retos tales como satisfacer un elevado crecimiento en la demanda de alimentos, desarrollar una agricultura sostenible con el medio ambiente y reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. El potencial de adaptación debe ser definido en un contexto que incluya el comportamiento humano, ya que éste juega un papel decisivo en la implementación final de las medidas. Por este motivo, y para desarrollar correctamente políticas que busquen influir en el comportamiento de los agricultores para fomentar la adaptación a estas nuevas condiciones, es necesario entender previamente los procesos de toma de decisiones a nivel individual o de explotación, así como los efectos de los factores que determinan las barreras o motivaciones de la implementación de medidas. Esta Tesis doctoral trata de profundizar en el análisis de factores que influyen en la toma de decisiones de los agricultores para adoptar estrategias de adaptación al cambio climático. Este trabajo revisa la literatura actual y desarrolla un marco metodológico a nivel local y regional. Dos casos de estudio a nivel local (Doñana, España y Makueni, Kenia) han sido llevados a cabo con el fin de explorar el comportamiento de los agricultores hacia la adaptación. Estos casos de estudio representan regiones con notables diferencias en climatología, impactos del cambio climático, barreras para la adaptación y niveles de desarrollo e influencia de las instituciones públicas y privadas en la agricultura. Mientras el caso de estudio de Doñana representa un ejemplo de problemas asociados al uso y escasez del agua donde se espera que se agraven en el futuro, el caso de estudio de Makueni ejemplifica una zona fuertemente amenazada por las predicciones de cambio climático, donde adicionalmente la falta de infraestructura y la tecnología juegan un papel crucial para la implementación de la adaptación. El caso de estudio a nivel regional trata de generalizar en África el comportamiento de los agricultores sobre la implementación de medidas. El marco metodológico que se ha seguido en este trabajo abarca una amplia gama de enfoques y métodos para la recolección y análisis de datos. Los métodos utilizados para la toma de datos incluyen la implementación de encuestas, entrevistas, talleres con grupos de interés, grupos focales de discusión, revisión de estudios previos y bases de datos públicas. Los métodos analíticos incluyen métodos estadísticos, análisis multi‐criterio para la toma de decisiones, modelos de optimización de uso del suelo y un índice compuesto calculado a través de indicadores. Los métodos estadísticos se han utilizado con el fin de evaluar la influencia de los factores socio‐económicos y psicológicos sobre la adopción de medidas de adaptación. Dentro de estos métodos se incluyen regresiones logísticas, análisis de componentes principales y modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Mientras que el análisis multi‐criterio se ha utilizado con el fin de evaluar las opciones de adaptación de acuerdo a las opiniones de las diferentes partes interesadas, el modelo de optimización ha tenido como fin analizar la combinación óptima de medidas de adaptación. El índice compuesto se ha utilizado para evaluar a nivel regional la implementación de medidas de adaptación en África. En general, los resultados del estudio ponen de relieve la gran importancia de considerar diferentes escalas espaciales a la hora de evaluar la implementación de medidas de adaptación al cambio climático. El comportamiento de los agricultores es diferente entre lugares considerados a una escala local relativamente pequeña, por lo que la generalización de los patrones del comportamiento a escalas regionales o globales resulta relativamente compleja. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido identificar factores determinantes tanto socioeconómicos como psicológicos y calcular su efecto sobre la adopción de medidas de adaptación. Además han proporcionado una mejor comprensión del distinto papel que desempeñan los cinco tipos de capital (natural, físico, financiero, social y humano) en la implementación de estrategias de adaptación. Con este trabajo se proporciona información de gran interés en los procesos de desarrollo de políticas destinadas a mejorar el apoyo de la sociedad a tomar medidas contra el cambio climático. Por último, en el análisis a nivel regional se desarrolla un índice compuesto que muestra la probabilidad de adoptar medidas de adaptación en las regiones de África y se analizan las causas que determinan dicha probabilidad de adopción de medidas. ABSTRACT Agriculture is and will continue to be one of the sectors most affected by climate change. Despite having demonstrated throughout history a great ability to adapt, agriculture today faces new challenges such as meeting growing food demands, developing sustainable agriculture and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Adaptation policies planned on global, regional or local scales are ultimately implemented in decision‐making processes at the farm or individual level so adaptation potentials have to be set within the context of individual behaviour and regional institutions. Policy instruments can play a formative role in the adoption of such policies by addressing incentives/disincentives that influence farmer’s behaviour. Hence understanding farm‐level decision‐making processes and the influence of determinants of adoption is crucial when designing policies aimed at fostering adoption. This thesis seeks to analyse the factors that influence decision‐making by farmers in relation to the uptake of adaptation options. This work reviews the current knowledge and develops a methodological framework at local and regional level. Whilst the case studies at the local level are conducted with the purpose of exploring farmer’s behaviour towards adaptation the case study at the regional level attempts to up‐scale and generalise theory on adoption of farmlevel adaptation options. The two case studies at the local level (Doñana, Spain and Makueni, Kenya) encompass areas with different; climates, impacts of climate change, adaptation constraints and limits, levels of development, institutional support for agriculture and influence from public and private institutions. Whilst the Doñana Case Study represents an area plagued with water‐usage issues, set to be aggravated further by climate change, Makueni Case study exemplifies an area decidedly threatened by climate change where a lack of infrastructure and technology plays a crucial role in the uptake of adaptation options. The proposed framework is based on a wide range of approaches for collecting and analysing data. The approaches used for data collection include the implementation of surveys, interviews, stakeholder workshops, focus group discussions, a review of previous case studies, and public databases. The analytical methods include statistical approaches, multi criteria analysis for decision‐making, land use optimisation models, and a composite index based on public databases. Statistical approaches are used to assess the influence of socio‐economic and psychological factors on the adoption or support for adaptation measures. The statistical approaches used are logistic regressions, principal component analysis and structural equation modelling. Whilst a multi criteria analysis approach is used to evaluate adaptation options according to the different perspectives of stakeholders, the optimisation model analyses the optimal combination of adaptation options. The composite index is developed to assess adoption of adaptation measures in Africa. Overall, the results of the study highlight the importance of considering various scales when assessing adoption of adaptation measures to climate change. As farmer’s behaviour varies at a local scale there is elevated complexity when generalising behavioural patterns for farmers at regional or global scales. The results identify and estimate the effect of most relevant socioeconomic and psychological factors that influence adoption of adaptation measures to climate change. They also provide a better understanding of the role of the five types of capital (natural, physical, financial, social, and human) on the uptake of farm‐level adaptation options. These assessments of determinants help to explain adoption of climate change measures and provide helpful information in order to design polices aimed at enhancing societal support for adaptation policies. Finally the analysis at the regional level develops a composite index which suggests the likelihood of the regions in Africa to adopt farm‐level adaptation measures and analyses the main causes of this likelihood of adoption.

Automated end user-centred adaptation of web components through automated description logic-based reasoning

Context: This paper addresses one of the major end-user development (EUD) challenges, namely, how to pack today?s EUD support tools with composable elements. This would give end users better access to more components which they can use to build a solution tailored to their own needs. The success of later end-user software engineering (EUSE) activities largely depends on how many components each tool has and how adaptable components are to multiple problem domains. Objective: A system for automatically adapting heterogeneous components to a common development environment would offer a sizeable saving of time and resources within the EUD support tool construction process. This paper presents an automated adaptation system for transforming EUD components to a standard format. Method: This system is based on the use of description logic. Based on a generic UML2 data model, this description logic is able to check whether an end-user component can be transformed to this modeling language through subsumption or as an instance of the UML2 model. Besides it automatically finds a consistent, non-ambiguous and finite set of XSLT mappings to automatically prepare data in order to leverage the component as part of a tool that conforms to the target UML2 component model. Results: The proposed system has been successfully applied to components from four prominent EUD tools. These components were automatically converted to a standard format. In order to validate the proposed system, rich internet applications (RIA) used as an operational support system for operators at a large services company were developed using automatically adapted standard format components. These RIAs would be impossible to develop using each EUD tool separately. Conclusion: The positive results of applying our system for automatically adapting components from current tool catalogues are indicative of the system?s effectiveness. Use of this system could foster the growth of web EUD component catalogues, leveraging a vast ecosystem of user-centred SaaS to further current EUSE trends.

Exploring strategic farming choices to respond to mitigation and adaptation to climate change

Las alteraciones del sistema climático debido al aumento de concentraciones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en la atmósfera, tendrán implicaciones importantes para la agricultura, el medio ambiente y la sociedad. La agricultura es una fuente importante de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (globalmente contribuye al 12% del total de GEI), y al mismo tiempo puede ser parte de la solución para mitigar las emisiones y adaptarse al cambio climático. Las acciones frente al desafío del cambio climático deben priorizar estrategias de adaptación y mitigación en la agricultura dentro de la agenda para el desarrollo de políticas. La agricultura es por tanto crucial para la conservación y el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales, que ya están sometidos a impactos del cambio climático, al mismo tiempo que debe suministrar alimentos para una población creciente. Por tanto, es necesaria una coordinación entre las actuales estrategias de política climática y agrícola. El concepto de agricultura climáticamente inteligente ha surgido para integrar todos estos servicios de la producción agraria. Al evaluar opciones para reducir las amenazas del cambio climático para la agricultura y el medio ambiente, surgen dos preguntas de investigación: • ¿Qué información es necesaria para definir prácticas agrarias inteligentes? • ¿Qué factores influyen en la implementación de las prácticas agrarias inteligentes? Esta Tesis trata de proporcionar información relevante sobre estas cuestiones generales con el fin de apoyar el desarrollo de la política climática. Se centra en sistemas agrícolas Mediterráneos. Esta Tesis integra diferentes métodos y herramientas para evaluar las alternativas de gestión agrícola y políticas con potencial para responder a las necesidades de mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. La investigación incluye enfoques cuantitativos y cualitativos e integra variables agronómicas, de clima y socioeconómicas a escala local y regional. La investigación aporta una recopilación de datos sobre evidencia experimental existente, y un estudio integrado sobre el comportamiento de los agricultores y las posibles alternativas de cambio (por ejemplo, la tecnología, la gestión agrícola y la política climática). Los casos de estudio de esta Tesis - el humedal de Doñana (S España) y la región de Aragón (NE España) - permiten ilustrar dos sistemas Mediterráneos representativos, donde el uso intensivo de la agricultura y las condiciones semiáridas son ya una preocupación. Por este motivo, la adopción de estrategias de mitigación y adaptación puede desempeñar un papel muy importante a la hora de encontrar un equilibrio entre la equidad, la seguridad económica y el medio ambiente en los escenarios de cambio climático. La metodología multidisciplinar de esta tesis incluye una amplia gama de enfoques y métodos para la recopilación y el análisis de datos. La toma de datos se apoya en la revisión bibliográfica de evidencia experimental, bases de datos públicas nacionales e internacionales y datos primarios recopilados mediante entrevistas semi-estructuradas con los grupos de interés (administraciones públicas, responsables políticos, asesores agrícolas, científicos y agricultores) y encuestas con agricultores. Los métodos de análisis incluyen: meta-análisis, modelos de gestión de recursos hídricos (modelo WAAPA), análisis multicriterio para la toma de decisiones, métodos estadísticos (modelos de regresión logística y de Poisson) y herramientas para el desarrollo de políticas basadas en la ciencia. El meta-análisis identifica los umbrales críticos de temperatura que repercuten en el crecimiento y el desarrollo de los tres cultivos principales para la seguridad alimentaria (arroz, maíz y trigo). El modelo WAAPA evalúa el efecto del cambio climático en la gestión del agua para la agricultura de acuerdo a diferentes alternativas políticas y escenarios climáticos. El análisis multicriterio evalúa la viabilidad de las prácticas agrícolas de mitigación en dos escenarios climáticos de acuerdo a la percepción de diferentes expertos. Los métodos estadísticos analizan los determinantes y las barreras para la adopción de prácticas agrícolas de mitigación. Las herramientas para el desarrollo de políticas basadas en la ciencia muestran el potencial y el coste para reducir GEI mediante las prácticas agrícolas. En general, los resultados de esta Tesis proporcionan información sobre la adaptación y la mitigación del cambio climático a nivel de explotación para desarrollar una política climática más integrada y ayudar a los agricultores en la toma de decisiones. Los resultados muestran las temperaturas umbral y la respuesta del arroz, el maíz y el trigo a temperaturas extremas, siendo estos valores de gran utilidad para futuros estudios de impacto y adaptación. Los resultados obtenidos también aportan una serie de estrategias flexibles para la adaptación y la mitigación a escala local, proporcionando a su vez una mejor comprensión sobre las barreras y los incentivos para su adopción. La capacidad de mejorar la disponibilidad de agua y el potencial y el coste de reducción de GEI se han estimado para estas estrategias en los casos de estudio. Estos resultados podrían ayudar en el desarrollo de planes locales de adaptación y políticas regionales de mitigación, especialmente en las regiones Mediterráneas. ABSTRACT Alterations in the climatic system due to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) are expected to have important implications for agriculture, the environment and society. Agriculture is an important source of GHG emissions (12 % of global anthropogenic GHG), but it is also part of the solution to mitigate emissions and to adapt to climate change. Responses to face the challenge of climate change should place agricultural adaptation and mitigation strategies at the heart of the climate change agenda. Agriculture is crucial for the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, which already stand under pressure due to climate change impacts, increased population, pollution and fragmented and uncoordinated climate policy strategies. The concept of climate smart agriculture has emerged to encompass all these issues as a whole. When assessing choices aimed at reducing threats to agriculture and the environment under climate change, two research questions arise: • What information defines smart farming choices? • What drives the implementation of smart farming choices? This Thesis aims to provide information on these broad questions in order to support climate policy development focusing in some Mediterranean agricultural systems. This Thesis integrates methods and tools to evaluate potential farming and policy choices to respond to mitigation and adaptation to climate change. The assessment involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches and integrates agronomic, climate and socioeconomic variables at local and regional scale. The assessment includes the collection of data on previous experimental evidence, and the integration of farmer behaviour and policy choices (e.g., technology, agricultural management and climate policy). The case study areas -- the Doñana coastal wetland (S Spain) and the Aragón region (NE Spain) – illustrate two representative Mediterranean regions where the intensive use of agriculture and the semi-arid conditions are already a concern. Thus the adoption of mitigation and adaptation measures can play a significant role for reaching a balance among equity, economic security and the environment under climate change scenarios. The multidisciplinary methodology of this Thesis includes a wide range of approaches for collecting and analysing data. The data collection process include revision of existing experimental evidence, public databases and the contribution of primary data gathering by semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders (i.e., public administrations, policy makers, agricultural advisors, scientist and farmers among others) and surveys given to farmers. The analytical methods include meta-analysis, water availability models (WAAPA model), decision making analysis (MCA, multi-criteria analysis), statistical approaches (Logistic and Poisson regression models) and science-base policy tools (MACC, marginal abatement cost curves and SOC abatement wedges). The meta-analysis identifies the critical temperature thresholds which impact on the growth and development of three major crops (i.e., rice, maize and wheat). The WAAPA model assesses the effect of climate change for agricultural water management under different policy choices and climate scenarios. The multi-criteria analysis evaluates the feasibility of mitigation farming practices under two climate scenarios according to the expert views. The statistical approaches analyses the drivers and the barriers for the adoption of mitigation farming practices. The science-base policy tools illustrate the mitigation potential and cost effectiveness of the farming practices. Overall, the results of this Thesis provide information to adapt to, and mitigate of, climate change at farm level to support the development of a comprehensive climate policy and to assist farmers. The findings show the key temperature thresholds and response to extreme temperature effects for rice, maize and wheat, so such responses can be included into crop impact and adaptation models. A portfolio of flexible adaptation and mitigation choices at local scale are identified. The results also provide a better understanding of the stakeholders oppose or support to adopt the choices which could be used to incorporate in local adaptation plans and mitigation regional policy. The findings include estimations for the farming and policy choices on the capacity to improve water supply reliability, abatement potential and cost-effective in Mediterranean regions.

Technology transfer of renewable energy for rural development: historical evolution and lessons of experience from the model WWP

Technology transfer (TT) in the area of renewable energy (RE) throughout history has been an important tool for rural development (RD). Initially, the TT has been conceptualized as the purchase or donation of machinery from first world countries - without any consideration of staff training and contextual conditions for the adaptation of technology to the needs of the country. Various researches have revealed the existence of different approaches to planning the TT of RE, demonstrating the high complexity of projects from the social and contextual dimension. This paper addresses the conceptual evolution of the TT of RE for RD, examining its different periods considered for three criteria: historical events occurred, the role of stakeholders and changing objectives for the TT of RE for RD. For the conceptual analysis of changes the model Working With People (WWP) is used for planning and project management of high social complexity in RD. The analysis defines the existence of four historical periods in the TT of RE and synthesizes the lessons of experience from the three dimensions (ethical-social, technical-entrepreneurial, and political-contextual) of the WWP model.

Parametric and structural self-adaptation of embedded systems using evolvable hardware

Los sistemas empotrados han sido concebidos tradicionalmente como sistemas de procesamiento específicos que realizan una tarea fija durante toda su vida útil. Para cumplir con requisitos estrictos de coste, tamaño y peso, el equipo de diseño debe optimizar su funcionamiento para condiciones muy específicas. Sin embargo, la demanda de mayor versatilidad, un funcionamiento más inteligente y, en definitiva, una mayor capacidad de procesamiento comenzaron a chocar con estas limitaciones, agravado por la incertidumbre asociada a entornos de operación cada vez más dinámicos donde comenzaban a ser desplegados progresivamente. Esto trajo como resultado una necesidad creciente de que los sistemas pudieran responder por si solos a eventos inesperados en tiempo diseño tales como: cambios en las características de los datos de entrada y el entorno del sistema en general; cambios en la propia plataforma de cómputo, por ejemplo debido a fallos o defectos de fabricación; y cambios en las propias especificaciones funcionales causados por unos objetivos del sistema dinámicos y cambiantes. Como consecuencia, la complejidad del sistema aumenta, pero a cambio se habilita progresivamente una capacidad de adaptación autónoma sin intervención humana a lo largo de la vida útil, permitiendo que tomen sus propias decisiones en tiempo de ejecución. Éstos sistemas se conocen, en general, como sistemas auto-adaptativos y tienen, entre otras características, las de auto-configuración, auto-optimización y auto-reparación. Típicamente, la parte soft de un sistema es mayoritariamente la única utilizada para proporcionar algunas capacidades de adaptación a un sistema. Sin embargo, la proporción rendimiento/potencia en dispositivos software como microprocesadores en muchas ocasiones no es adecuada para sistemas empotrados. En este escenario, el aumento resultante en la complejidad de las aplicaciones está siendo abordado parcialmente mediante un aumento en la complejidad de los dispositivos en forma de multi/many-cores; pero desafortunadamente, esto hace que el consumo de potencia también aumente. Además, la mejora en metodologías de diseño no ha sido acorde como para poder utilizar toda la capacidad de cómputo disponible proporcionada por los núcleos. Por todo ello, no se están satisfaciendo adecuadamente las demandas de cómputo que imponen las nuevas aplicaciones. La solución tradicional para mejorar la proporción rendimiento/potencia ha sido el cambio a unas especificaciones hardware, principalmente usando ASICs. Sin embargo, los costes de un ASIC son altamente prohibitivos excepto en algunos casos de producción en masa y además la naturaleza estática de su estructura complica la solución a las necesidades de adaptación. Los avances en tecnologías de fabricación han hecho que la FPGA, una vez lenta y pequeña, usada como glue logic en sistemas mayores, haya crecido hasta convertirse en un dispositivo de cómputo reconfigurable de gran potencia, con una cantidad enorme de recursos lógicos computacionales y cores hardware empotrados de procesamiento de señal y de propósito general. Sus capacidades de reconfiguración han permitido combinar la flexibilidad propia del software con el rendimiento del procesamiento en hardware, lo que tiene la potencialidad de provocar un cambio de paradigma en arquitectura de computadores, pues el hardware no puede ya ser considerado más como estático. El motivo es que como en el caso de las FPGAs basadas en tecnología SRAM, la reconfiguración parcial dinámica (DPR, Dynamic Partial Reconfiguration) es posible. Esto significa que se puede modificar (reconfigurar) un subconjunto de los recursos computacionales en tiempo de ejecución mientras el resto permanecen activos. Además, este proceso de reconfiguración puede ser ejecutado internamente por el propio dispositivo. El avance tecnológico en dispositivos hardware reconfigurables se encuentra recogido bajo el campo conocido como Computación Reconfigurable (RC, Reconfigurable Computing). Uno de los campos de aplicación más exóticos y menos convencionales que ha posibilitado la computación reconfigurable es el conocido como Hardware Evolutivo (EHW, Evolvable Hardware), en el cual se encuentra enmarcada esta tesis. La idea principal del concepto consiste en convertir hardware que es adaptable a través de reconfiguración en una entidad evolutiva sujeta a las fuerzas de un proceso evolutivo inspirado en el de las especies biológicas naturales, que guía la dirección del cambio. Es una aplicación más del campo de la Computación Evolutiva (EC, Evolutionary Computation), que comprende una serie de algoritmos de optimización global conocidos como Algoritmos Evolutivos (EA, Evolutionary Algorithms), y que son considerados como algoritmos universales de resolución de problemas. En analogía al proceso biológico de la evolución, en el hardware evolutivo el sujeto de la evolución es una población de circuitos que intenta adaptarse a su entorno mediante una adecuación progresiva generación tras generación. Los individuos pasan a ser configuraciones de circuitos en forma de bitstreams caracterizados por descripciones de circuitos reconfigurables. Seleccionando aquellos que se comportan mejor, es decir, que tienen una mejor adecuación (o fitness) después de ser evaluados, y usándolos como padres de la siguiente generación, el algoritmo evolutivo crea una nueva población hija usando operadores genéticos como la mutación y la recombinación. Según se van sucediendo generaciones, se espera que la población en conjunto se aproxime a la solución óptima al problema de encontrar una configuración del circuito adecuada que satisfaga las especificaciones. El estado de la tecnología de reconfiguración después de que la familia de FPGAs XC6200 de Xilinx fuera retirada y reemplazada por las familias Virtex a finales de los 90, supuso un gran obstáculo para el avance en hardware evolutivo; formatos de bitstream cerrados (no conocidos públicamente); dependencia de herramientas del fabricante con soporte limitado de DPR; una velocidad de reconfiguración lenta; y el hecho de que modificaciones aleatorias del bitstream pudieran resultar peligrosas para la integridad del dispositivo, son algunas de estas razones. Sin embargo, una propuesta a principios de los años 2000 permitió mantener la investigación en el campo mientras la tecnología de DPR continuaba madurando, el Circuito Virtual Reconfigurable (VRC, Virtual Reconfigurable Circuit). En esencia, un VRC en una FPGA es una capa virtual que actúa como un circuito reconfigurable de aplicación específica sobre la estructura nativa de la FPGA que reduce la complejidad del proceso reconfiguración y aumenta su velocidad (comparada con la reconfiguración nativa). Es un array de nodos computacionales especificados usando descripciones HDL estándar que define recursos reconfigurables ad-hoc: multiplexores de rutado y un conjunto de elementos de procesamiento configurables, cada uno de los cuales tiene implementadas todas las funciones requeridas, que pueden seleccionarse a través de multiplexores tal y como ocurre en una ALU de un microprocesador. Un registro grande actúa como memoria de configuración, por lo que la reconfiguración del VRC es muy rápida ya que tan sólo implica la escritura de este registro, el cual controla las señales de selección del conjunto de multiplexores. Sin embargo, esta capa virtual provoca: un incremento de área debido a la implementación simultánea de cada función en cada nodo del array más los multiplexores y un aumento del retardo debido a los multiplexores, reduciendo la frecuencia de funcionamiento máxima. La naturaleza del hardware evolutivo, capaz de optimizar su propio comportamiento computacional, le convierten en un buen candidato para avanzar en la investigación sobre sistemas auto-adaptativos. Combinar un sustrato de cómputo auto-reconfigurable capaz de ser modificado dinámicamente en tiempo de ejecución con un algoritmo empotrado que proporcione una dirección de cambio, puede ayudar a satisfacer los requisitos de adaptación autónoma de sistemas empotrados basados en FPGA. La propuesta principal de esta tesis está por tanto dirigida a contribuir a la auto-adaptación del hardware de procesamiento de sistemas empotrados basados en FPGA mediante hardware evolutivo. Esto se ha abordado considerando que el comportamiento computacional de un sistema puede ser modificado cambiando cualquiera de sus dos partes constitutivas: una estructura hard subyacente y un conjunto de parámetros soft. De esta distinción, se derivan dos lineas de trabajo. Por un lado, auto-adaptación paramétrica, y por otro auto-adaptación estructural. El objetivo perseguido en el caso de la auto-adaptación paramétrica es la implementación de técnicas de optimización evolutiva complejas en sistemas empotrados con recursos limitados para la adaptación paramétrica online de circuitos de procesamiento de señal. La aplicación seleccionada como prueba de concepto es la optimización para tipos muy específicos de imágenes de los coeficientes de los filtros de transformadas wavelet discretas (DWT, DiscreteWavelet Transform), orientada a la compresión de imágenes. Por tanto, el objetivo requerido de la evolución es una compresión adaptativa y más eficiente comparada con los procedimientos estándar. El principal reto radica en reducir la necesidad de recursos de supercomputación para el proceso de optimización propuesto en trabajos previos, de modo que se adecúe para la ejecución en sistemas empotrados. En cuanto a la auto-adaptación estructural, el objetivo de la tesis es la implementación de circuitos auto-adaptativos en sistemas evolutivos basados en FPGA mediante un uso eficiente de sus capacidades de reconfiguración nativas. En este caso, la prueba de concepto es la evolución de tareas de procesamiento de imagen tales como el filtrado de tipos desconocidos y cambiantes de ruido y la detección de bordes en la imagen. En general, el objetivo es la evolución en tiempo de ejecución de tareas de procesamiento de imagen desconocidas en tiempo de diseño (dentro de un cierto grado de complejidad). En este caso, el objetivo de la propuesta es la incorporación de DPR en EHW para evolucionar la arquitectura de un array sistólico adaptable mediante reconfiguración cuya capacidad de evolución no había sido estudiada previamente. Para conseguir los dos objetivos mencionados, esta tesis propone originalmente una plataforma evolutiva que integra un motor de adaptación (AE, Adaptation Engine), un motor de reconfiguración (RE, Reconfiguration Engine) y un motor computacional (CE, Computing Engine) adaptable. El el caso de adaptación paramétrica, la plataforma propuesta está caracterizada por: • un CE caracterizado por un núcleo de procesamiento hardware de DWT adaptable mediante registros reconfigurables que contienen los coeficientes de los filtros wavelet • un algoritmo evolutivo como AE que busca filtros wavelet candidatos a través de un proceso de optimización paramétrica desarrollado específicamente para sistemas caracterizados por recursos de procesamiento limitados • un nuevo operador de mutación simplificado para el algoritmo evolutivo utilizado, que junto con un mecanismo de evaluación rápida de filtros wavelet candidatos derivado de la literatura actual, asegura la viabilidad de la búsqueda evolutiva asociada a la adaptación de wavelets. En el caso de adaptación estructural, la plataforma propuesta toma la forma de: • un CE basado en una plantilla de array sistólico reconfigurable de 2 dimensiones compuesto de nodos de procesamiento reconfigurables • un algoritmo evolutivo como AE que busca configuraciones candidatas del array usando un conjunto de funcionalidades de procesamiento para los nodos disponible en una biblioteca accesible en tiempo de ejecución • un RE hardware que explota la capacidad de reconfiguración nativa de las FPGAs haciendo un uso eficiente de los recursos reconfigurables del dispositivo para cambiar el comportamiento del CE en tiempo de ejecución • una biblioteca de elementos de procesamiento reconfigurables caracterizada por bitstreams parciales independientes de la posición, usados como el conjunto de configuraciones disponibles para los nodos de procesamiento del array Las contribuciones principales de esta tesis se pueden resumir en la siguiente lista: • Una plataforma evolutiva basada en FPGA para la auto-adaptación paramétrica y estructural de sistemas empotrados compuesta por un motor computacional (CE), un motor de adaptación (AE) evolutivo y un motor de reconfiguración (RE). Esta plataforma se ha desarrollado y particularizado para los casos de auto-adaptación paramétrica y estructural. • En cuanto a la auto-adaptación paramétrica, las contribuciones principales son: – Un motor computacional adaptable mediante registros que permite la adaptación paramétrica de los coeficientes de una implementación hardware adaptativa de un núcleo de DWT. – Un motor de adaptación basado en un algoritmo evolutivo desarrollado específicamente para optimización numérica, aplicada a los coeficientes de filtros wavelet en sistemas empotrados con recursos limitados. – Un núcleo IP de DWT auto-adaptativo en tiempo de ejecución para sistemas empotrados que permite la optimización online del rendimiento de la transformada para compresión de imágenes en entornos específicos de despliegue, caracterizados por tipos diferentes de señal de entrada. – Un modelo software y una implementación hardware de una herramienta para la construcción evolutiva automática de transformadas wavelet específicas. • Por último, en cuanto a la auto-adaptación estructural, las contribuciones principales son: – Un motor computacional adaptable mediante reconfiguración nativa de FPGAs caracterizado por una plantilla de array sistólico en dos dimensiones de nodos de procesamiento reconfigurables. Es posible mapear diferentes tareas de cómputo en el array usando una biblioteca de elementos sencillos de procesamiento reconfigurables. – Definición de una biblioteca de elementos de procesamiento apropiada para la síntesis autónoma en tiempo de ejecución de diferentes tareas de procesamiento de imagen. – Incorporación eficiente de la reconfiguración parcial dinámica (DPR) en sistemas de hardware evolutivo, superando los principales inconvenientes de propuestas previas como los circuitos reconfigurables virtuales (VRCs). En este trabajo también se comparan originalmente los detalles de implementación de ambas propuestas. – Una plataforma tolerante a fallos, auto-curativa, que permite la recuperación funcional online en entornos peligrosos. La plataforma ha sido caracterizada desde una perspectiva de tolerancia a fallos: se proponen modelos de fallo a nivel de CLB y de elemento de procesamiento, y usando el motor de reconfiguración, se hace un análisis sistemático de fallos para un fallo en cada elemento de procesamiento y para dos fallos acumulados. – Una plataforma con calidad de filtrado dinámica que permite la adaptación online a tipos de ruido diferentes y diferentes comportamientos computacionales teniendo en cuenta los recursos de procesamiento disponibles. Por un lado, se evolucionan filtros con comportamientos no destructivos, que permiten esquemas de filtrado en cascada escalables; y por otro, también se evolucionan filtros escalables teniendo en cuenta requisitos computacionales de filtrado cambiantes dinámicamente. Este documento está organizado en cuatro partes y nueve capítulos. La primera parte contiene el capítulo 1, una introducción y motivación sobre este trabajo de tesis. A continuación, el marco de referencia en el que se enmarca esta tesis se analiza en la segunda parte: el capítulo 2 contiene una introducción a los conceptos de auto-adaptación y computación autonómica (autonomic computing) como un campo de investigación más general que el muy específico de este trabajo; el capítulo 3 introduce la computación evolutiva como la técnica para dirigir la adaptación; el capítulo 4 analiza las plataformas de computación reconfigurables como la tecnología para albergar hardware auto-adaptativo; y finalmente, el capítulo 5 define, clasifica y hace un sondeo del campo del hardware evolutivo. Seguidamente, la tercera parte de este trabajo contiene la propuesta, desarrollo y resultados obtenidos: mientras que el capítulo 6 contiene una declaración de los objetivos de la tesis y la descripción de la propuesta en su conjunto, los capítulos 7 y 8 abordan la auto-adaptación paramétrica y estructural, respectivamente. Finalmente, el capítulo 9 de la parte 4 concluye el trabajo y describe caminos de investigación futuros. ABSTRACT Embedded systems have traditionally been conceived to be specific-purpose computers with one, fixed computational task for their whole lifetime. Stringent requirements in terms of cost, size and weight forced designers to highly optimise their operation for very specific conditions. However, demands for versatility, more intelligent behaviour and, in summary, an increased computing capability began to clash with these limitations, intensified by the uncertainty associated to the more dynamic operating environments where they were progressively being deployed. This brought as a result an increasing need for systems to respond by themselves to unexpected events at design time, such as: changes in input data characteristics and system environment in general; changes in the computing platform itself, e.g., due to faults and fabrication defects; and changes in functional specifications caused by dynamically changing system objectives. As a consequence, systems complexity is increasing, but in turn, autonomous lifetime adaptation without human intervention is being progressively enabled, allowing them to take their own decisions at run-time. This type of systems is known, in general, as selfadaptive, and are able, among others, of self-configuration, self-optimisation and self-repair. Traditionally, the soft part of a system has mostly been so far the only place to provide systems with some degree of adaptation capabilities. However, the performance to power ratios of software driven devices like microprocessors are not adequate for embedded systems in many situations. In this scenario, the resulting rise in applications complexity is being partly addressed by rising devices complexity in the form of multi and many core devices; but sadly, this keeps on increasing power consumption. Besides, design methodologies have not been improved accordingly to completely leverage the available computational power from all these cores. Altogether, these factors make that the computing demands new applications pose are not being wholly satisfied. The traditional solution to improve performance to power ratios has been the switch to hardware driven specifications, mainly using ASICs. However, their costs are highly prohibitive except for some mass production cases and besidesthe static nature of its structure complicates the solution to the adaptation needs. The advancements in fabrication technologies have made that the once slow, small FPGA used as glue logic in bigger systems, had grown to be a very powerful, reconfigurable computing device with a vast amount of computational logic resources and embedded, hardened signal and general purpose processing cores. Its reconfiguration capabilities have enabled software-like flexibility to be combined with hardware-like computing performance, which has the potential to cause a paradigm shift in computer architecture since hardware cannot be considered as static anymore. This is so, since, as is the case with SRAMbased FPGAs, Dynamic Partial Reconfiguration (DPR) is possible. This means that subsets of the FPGA computational resources can now be changed (reconfigured) at run-time while the rest remains active. Besides, this reconfiguration process can be triggered internally by the device itself. This technological boost in reconfigurable hardware devices is actually covered under the field known as Reconfigurable Computing. One of the most exotic fields of application that Reconfigurable Computing has enabled is the known as Evolvable Hardware (EHW), in which this dissertation is framed. The main idea behind the concept is turning hardware that is adaptable through reconfiguration into an evolvable entity subject to the forces of an evolutionary process, inspired by that of natural, biological species, that guides the direction of change. It is yet another application of the field of Evolutionary Computation (EC), which comprises a set of global optimisation algorithms known as Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs), considered as universal problem solvers. In analogy to the biological process of evolution, in EHW the subject of evolution is a population of circuits that tries to get adapted to its surrounding environment by progressively getting better fitted to it generation after generation. Individuals become circuit configurations representing bitstreams that feature reconfigurable circuit descriptions. By selecting those that behave better, i.e., with a higher fitness value after being evaluated, and using them as parents of the following generation, the EA creates a new offspring population by using so called genetic operators like mutation and recombination. As generations succeed one another, the whole population is expected to approach to the optimum solution to the problem of finding an adequate circuit configuration that fulfils system objectives. The state of reconfiguration technology after Xilinx XC6200 FPGA family was discontinued and replaced by Virtex families in the late 90s, was a major obstacle for advancements in EHW; closed (non publicly known) bitstream formats; dependence on manufacturer tools with highly limiting support of DPR; slow speed of reconfiguration; and random bitstream modifications being potentially hazardous for device integrity, are some of these reasons. However, a proposal in the first 2000s allowed to keep investigating in this field while DPR technology kept maturing, the Virtual Reconfigurable Circuit (VRC). In essence, a VRC in an FPGA is a virtual layer acting as an application specific reconfigurable circuit on top of an FPGA fabric that reduces the complexity of the reconfiguration process and increases its speed (compared to native reconfiguration). It is an array of computational nodes specified using standard HDL descriptions that define ad-hoc reconfigurable resources; routing multiplexers and a set of configurable processing elements, each one containing all the required functions, which are selectable through functionality multiplexers as in microprocessor ALUs. A large register acts as configuration memory, so VRC reconfiguration is very fast given it only involves writing this register, which drives the selection signals of the set of multiplexers. However, large overheads are introduced by this virtual layer; an area overhead due to the simultaneous implementation of every function in every node of the array plus the multiplexers, and a delay overhead due to the multiplexers, which also reduces maximum frequency of operation. The very nature of Evolvable Hardware, able to optimise its own computational behaviour, makes it a good candidate to advance research in self-adaptive systems. Combining a selfreconfigurable computing substrate able to be dynamically changed at run-time with an embedded algorithm that provides a direction for change, can help fulfilling requirements for autonomous lifetime adaptation of FPGA-based embedded systems. The main proposal of this thesis is hence directed to contribute to autonomous self-adaptation of the underlying computational hardware of FPGA-based embedded systems by means of Evolvable Hardware. This is tackled by considering that the computational behaviour of a system can be modified by changing any of its two constituent parts: an underlying hard structure and a set of soft parameters. Two main lines of work derive from this distinction. On one side, parametric self-adaptation and, on the other side, structural self-adaptation. The goal pursued in the case of parametric self-adaptation is the implementation of complex evolutionary optimisation techniques in resource constrained embedded systems for online parameter adaptation of signal processing circuits. The application selected as proof of concept is the optimisation of Discrete Wavelet Transforms (DWT) filters coefficients for very specific types of images, oriented to image compression. Hence, adaptive and improved compression efficiency, as compared to standard techniques, is the required goal of evolution. The main quest lies in reducing the supercomputing resources reported in previous works for the optimisation process in order to make it suitable for embedded systems. Regarding structural self-adaptation, the thesis goal is the implementation of self-adaptive circuits in FPGA-based evolvable systems through an efficient use of native reconfiguration capabilities. In this case, evolution of image processing tasks such as filtering of unknown and changing types of noise and edge detection are the selected proofs of concept. In general, evolving unknown image processing behaviours (within a certain complexity range) at design time is the required goal. In this case, the mission of the proposal is the incorporation of DPR in EHW to evolve a systolic array architecture adaptable through reconfiguration whose evolvability had not been previously checked. In order to achieve the two stated goals, this thesis originally proposes an evolvable platform that integrates an Adaptation Engine (AE), a Reconfiguration Engine (RE) and an adaptable Computing Engine (CE). In the case of parametric adaptation, the proposed platform is characterised by: • a CE featuring a DWT hardware processing core adaptable through reconfigurable registers that holds wavelet filters coefficients • an evolutionary algorithm as AE that searches for candidate wavelet filters through a parametric optimisation process specifically developed for systems featured by scarce computing resources • a new, simplified mutation operator for the selected EA, that together with a fast evaluation mechanism of candidate wavelet filters derived from existing literature, assures the feasibility of the evolutionary search involved in wavelets adaptation In the case of structural adaptation, the platform proposal takes the form of: • a CE based on a reconfigurable 2D systolic array template composed of reconfigurable processing nodes • an evolutionary algorithm as AE that searches for candidate configurations of the array using a set of computational functionalities for the nodes available in a run time accessible library • a hardware RE that exploits native DPR capabilities of FPGAs and makes an efficient use of the available reconfigurable resources of the device to change the behaviour of the CE at run time • a library of reconfigurable processing elements featured by position-independent partial bitstreams used as the set of available configurations for the processing nodes of the array Main contributions of this thesis can be summarised in the following list. • An FPGA-based evolvable platform for parametric and structural self-adaptation of embedded systems composed of a Computing Engine, an evolutionary Adaptation Engine and a Reconfiguration Engine. This platform is further developed and tailored for both parametric and structural self-adaptation. • Regarding parametric self-adaptation, main contributions are: – A CE adaptable through reconfigurable registers that enables parametric adaptation of the coefficients of an adaptive hardware implementation of a DWT core. – An AE based on an Evolutionary Algorithm specifically developed for numerical optimisation applied to wavelet filter coefficients in resource constrained embedded systems. – A run-time self-adaptive DWT IP core for embedded systems that allows for online optimisation of transform performance for image compression for specific deployment environments characterised by different types of input signals. – A software model and hardware implementation of a tool for the automatic, evolutionary construction of custom wavelet transforms. • Lastly, regarding structural self-adaptation, main contributions are: – A CE adaptable through native FPGA fabric reconfiguration featured by a two dimensional systolic array template of reconfigurable processing nodes. Different processing behaviours can be automatically mapped in the array by using a library of simple reconfigurable processing elements. – Definition of a library of such processing elements suited for autonomous runtime synthesis of different image processing tasks. – Efficient incorporation of DPR in EHW systems, overcoming main drawbacks from the previous approach of virtual reconfigurable circuits. Implementation details for both approaches are also originally compared in this work. – A fault tolerant, self-healing platform that enables online functional recovery in hazardous environments. The platform has been characterised from a fault tolerance perspective: fault models at FPGA CLB level and processing elements level are proposed, and using the RE, a systematic fault analysis for one fault in every processing element and for two accumulated faults is done. – A dynamic filtering quality platform that permits on-line adaptation to different types of noise and different computing behaviours considering the available computing resources. On one side, non-destructive filters are evolved, enabling scalable cascaded filtering schemes; and on the other, size-scalable filters are also evolved considering dynamically changing computational filtering requirements. This dissertation is organized in four parts and nine chapters. First part contains chapter 1, the introduction to and motivation of this PhD work. Following, the reference framework in which this dissertation is framed is analysed in the second part: chapter 2 features an introduction to the notions of self-adaptation and autonomic computing as a more general research field to the very specific one of this work; chapter 3 introduces evolutionary computation as the technique to drive adaptation; chapter 4 analyses platforms for reconfigurable computing as the technology to hold self-adaptive hardware; and finally chapter 5 defines, classifies and surveys the field of Evolvable Hardware. Third part of the work follows, which contains the proposal, development and results obtained: while chapter 6 contains an statement of the thesis goals and the description of the proposal as a whole, chapters 7 and 8 address parametric and structural self-adaptation, respectively. Finally, chapter 9 in part 4 concludes the work and describes future research paths.

Mathematical approach for predicting non-negative tristimulus values using the CAT02 chromatic adaptation transform

It has been reported that for certain colour samples, the chromatic adaptation transform CAT02 imbedded in the CIECAM02 colour appearance model predicts corresponding colours with negative tristimulus values (TSVs), which can cause problems in certain applications. To overcome this problem, a mathematical approach is proposed for modifying CAT02. This approach combines a non-negativity constraint for the TSVs of corresponding colours with the minimization of the colour differences between those values for the corresponding colours obtained by visual observations and the TSVs of the corresponding colours predicted by the model, which is a constrained non-linear optimization problem. By solving the non-linear optimization problem, a new matrix is found. The performance of the CAT02 transform with various matrices including the original CAT02 matrix, and the new matrix are tested using visual datasets and the optimum colours. Test results show that the CAT02 with the new matrix predicted corresponding colours without negative TSVs for all optimum colours and the colour matching functions of the two CIE standard observers under the test illuminants considered. However, the accuracy with the new matrix for predicting the visual data is approximately 1 CIELAB colour difference unit worse compared with the original CAT02. This indicates that accuracy has to be sacrificed to achieve the non-negativity constraint for the TSVs of the corresponding colours.

Design for Inspiration: Children, personal connections and educational technology

The project is working towards building an understanding of the personal interests and experiences of children with the aim of designing appropriate, usable and, most importantly, inspirational educational technology. kidprobe, an adaptation of the technology probe concept, has been used as a lightweight method of gaining contextual information about children's interactions with 'fun' technology. kidprobe has produced design inspiration which focuses primarily on the social and emotional connections children made. The use of kidprobe has generated some important ideas for improving the use of probes with children. It is an important first step in understanding how to effectively adapt probing techniques to inspire the design of technology for children.

From national innovation systems to national innovation capacity:internationalisation and technology transfer perspectives

The last decade or so has witnessed the emergence of the national innovation system (NIS) phenomenon. Since then, many scholars have investigated NIS and its implementation in different countries. However, there are very few investigations into the relationship between the NIS of a country and its national innovation capacity. This paper aims to make a contribution in this area by examining the link that currently exists between these two topics. Whilst examining this relationship, we also explore internationalisation and technology transfer, being cognate areas that have been investigated during the same period. This follows our assertion that the link between NIS and national innovation capacity is the mechanism of internationalisation and technology transfer. The NIS approach was introduced in the late 1980s (see Freeman, 1987; Dosi et al., 1988) and further elaborated later (see Lundvall, 1992; Nelson, 1993; Edquist, 1997). In essence, a country?s NIS is a historically grown subsystem of the entire national economy consisting of organisations and institutions which play a major role in the innovative activity in the country. In the NIS approach, interactions within organisations as well as the interplay between organisations and institutions are of central importance. The NIS approach has been used to reveal the structure of the innovation processes and the main actors involved in them in industrialised and emerging countries. Although the national focus remains strong, it has been accompanied by studies seeking to analyse the notion of systems of innovation at an international level and at a sub-national scale (Archibugi et al., 1999). Dosi in the edition of Archibugi et al. (1999) argues that the general background of the discussion of national systems is the observation of non-random distributions across countries of: corporate capabilities; organisational forms; strategies; and ultimately revealed performances, in terms of production efficiency and inputs productivities, rates of innovation, rates of adoption/diffusion of innovation themselves, dynamics of market shares on the world markets, growth of income and employment. They also mention that there are several approaches to NIS. Nelson (1993) focuses upon the specificities of national institutions and policies supporting directly or indirectly innovation, diffusion and skills accumulation. Patel and Pavitt (1991) have stressed the links between the national patterns of technological accumulation and the competencies and innovative strategies of a few major national companies. Amable et al (1997) and Soskice (1993) and Zysman (1994) focus on the specifics of national institutions including, for example, the forms of organization, financial and labour markets, training institutions, forms of state intervention in the economy etc. However, the most common reference is by Lundvall (1992) who argues that the focus on the national level is associated with the fact that national economies vary according to their production system and their institutional framework and these differences are in turn strengthened by different historical experiences, language and culture. On the other hand, the national innovation capability consists of abilities to create and carry new technological possibilities through to economic practice. The term covers a wide range of activities from capability to invent to capability to innovate and to capability to improve existing technology beyond the original design parameters (Kim, 1997). The term innovation is often associated by many with technological change at international frontiers. However, technological capability is not the same as innovation capability. Technological capability refers to assimilation, use, adaptation, and change to existing technologies. It also enables the creation of new technologies and development of new products and processes in response to changing economic environments. It denotes operational command over knowledge (Kim, 1997). It is manifested not merely by the knowledge possessed, but, more important, by the uses to which that knowledge can be put and by the proficiency with which it is applied in the activities of investment and production and in the creation of new knowledge (Westphal et al., 1985). Therefore, the analytical framework that is used in this paper is based on the way a country derives from its NIS a national innovation capacity. There are two perspectives that are identified on this way. These are internationalisation and technology transfer. Even though NIS is not directly related to national innovation capacity, to achieve national innovation capacity from NIS, the country should have the ability for technology transfer. Technology transfer is a link between these two phenomena. On the other hand, internationalisation can be either the input or the output of the relationship between NIS and national innovation capability. If a company is investing in a country because of its national innovation capacity, this can be regarded as an input to the relationship between NIS and national innovation capacity. If this company is investigating the national innovation capacity of a country then, for its internationalisation, the national innovation capacity should be important, which in turn means this company is active in innovation and innovation is also an important success factor. The interrelationship between the investment of the company and the NIS of the country (assuming that the country is competent and competitive in technology transfer) will generate and improve that country?s national innovation capacity. This is the output of internationalisation from the relationship between NIS and national innovation capacity. When companies are evaluating whether to internationalise, they investigate certain factors in the countries in which they are considering to invest. The ability to transfer technology is dependent on ability to adopt a new technology and also on the learning derived from this technology. If countries wish to attract innovation related investment they need to show their ability to have a NIS and also the capability to transfer technology. Without the technology transfer capability, the NIS is not functioning. Therefore, companies that internationalise will investigate the factors common to NIS, technology transfer, and their business needs. Through this paper we will demonstrate this link though its mechanisms. Our research will be through extensive literature review and identifying relevant aspects of previous research carried out by the authors. It will investigate certain factors of different countries that are successful in attracting innovation related foreign direct investment. Through these, we will point out the factors that are important for the link and mechanisms of NIS and national innovation capability.

Model-driven software adaptation:report on the workshop M-ADAPT at ECOOP 2007

This first edition of the workshop Model-driven Software Adaptation (M-ADAPT'07) took place in the Technische Universität Berlin with the International Conference ECOOP'07 in the beautiful and buzzing city of Berlin, on the 30th of July, 2007. The workshop was organized by Gordon Blair, Nelly Bencomo, and Robert France. Participants explored how to develop appropriate model-driven approaches to model, analyze, and validate the volatile properties of the behaviour of adaptive systems and its environments. This report gives an overview of the presentations as well as an account of the fruitful discussions that took place at M-ADAPT'07. © 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Throughput-based rate adaptation algorithm for IEEE 802.11 vehicle networks

A key problem with IEEE 802.11 technology is adaptation of the transmission rates to the changing channel conditions, which is more challenging in vehicular networks. Although rate adaptation problem has been extensively studied for static residential and enterprise network scenarios, there is little work dedicated to the IEEE 802.11 rate adaptation in vehicular networks. Here, the authors are motivated to study the IEEE 802.11 rate adaptation problem in infrastructure-based vehicular networks. First of all, the performances of several existing rate adaptation algorithms under vehicle network scenarios, which have been widely used for static network scenarios, are evaluated. Then, a new rate adaptation algorithm is proposed to improve the network performance. In the new rate adaptation algorithm, the technique of sampling candidate transmission modes is used, and the effective throughput associated with a transmission mode is the metric used to choose among the possible transmission modes. The proposed algorithm is compared to several existing rate adaptation algorithms by simulations, which shows significant performance improvement under various system and channel configurations. An ideal signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)-based rate adaptation algorithm in which accurate channel SNR is assumed to be always available is also implemented for benchmark performance comparison.

Learning Technology in Scheduling Based on the Mixed Graphs

We propose the adaptive algorithm for solving a set of similar scheduling problems using learning technology. It is devised to combine the merits of an exact algorithm based on the mixed graph model and heuristics oriented on the real-world scheduling problems. The former may ensure high quality of the solution by means of an implicit exhausting enumeration of the feasible schedules. The latter may be developed for certain type of problems using their peculiarities. The main idea of the learning technology is to produce effective (in performance measure) and efficient (in computational time) heuristics by adapting local decisions for the scheduling problems under consideration. Adaptation is realized at the stage of learning while solving a set of sample scheduling problems using a branch-and-bound algorithm and structuring knowledge using pattern recognition apparatus.