The mode of action of aspirin-like drugs: effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase.

Nitric oxide synthesized by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) has been implicated as a mediator of inflammation in rheumatic and autoimmune diseases. We report that exposure of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated murine macrophages to therapeutic concentrations of aspirin (IC50 = 3 mM) and hydrocortisone (IC50 = 5 microM) inhibited the expression of iNOS and production of nitrite. In contrast, sodium salicylate (1-3 mM), indomethacin (5-20 microM), and acetaminophen (60-120 microM) had no significant effect on the production of nitrite at pharmacological concentrations. At suprapharmacological concentrations, sodium salicylate (IC50 = 20 mM) significantly inhibited nitrite production. Immunoblot analysis of iNOS expression in the presence of aspirin showed inhibition of iNOS expression (IC50 = 3 mM). Sodium salicylate variably inhibited iNOS expression (0-35%), whereas indomethacin had no effect. Furthermore, there was no significant effect of these nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on iNOS mRNA expression at pharmacological concentrations. The effect of aspirin was not due to inhibition of cyclooxygenase 2 because both aspirin and indomethacin inhibited prostaglandin E2 synthesis by > 75%. Aspirin and N-acetylimidazole (an effective acetylating agent), but not sodium salicylate or indomethacin, also directly interfered with the catalytic activity of iNOS in cell-free extracts. These studies indicate that the inhibition of iNOS expression and function represents another mechanism of action for aspirin, if not for all aspirin-like drugs. The effects are exerted at the level of translational/posttranslational modification and directly on the catalytic activity of iNOS.

Binding of purified multiple antibiotic-resistance repressor protein (MarR) to mar operator sequences.

Elevated expression of the marORAB multiple antibiotic-resistance operon enhances the resistance of Escherichia coli to various medically significant antibiotics. Transcription of the operon is repressed in vivo by the marR-encoded protein, MarR, and derepressed by salicylate and certain antibiotics. The possibility that repression results from MarR interacting with the marO operator-promoter region was studied in vitro using purified MarR and a DNA fragment containing marO. MarR formed at least two complexes with marO DNA, bound > 30-fold more tightly to it than to salmon sperm DNA, and protected two separate 21-bp sites within marO from digestion by DNase I. Site I abuts the downstream side of the putative -35 transcription-start signal and includes 4 bp of the -10 signal. Site II begins 13 bp downstream of site I, ending immediately before the first base pair of marR. Site II, approximately 80% homologous to site I, is not required for repression since a site II-deleted mutant (marO133) was repressed in trans by wild-type MarR. The absence of site II did not prevent MarR from complexing with the site I of marO133. Salicylate bound to MarR (Kd approximately 0.5 mM) and weakened the interaction of MarR with sites I and II. Thus, repression of the mar operon, which curbs the antibiotic resistance of E. coli, correlates with the formation of MarR-site I complexes. Salicylate appears to induce the mar operon by binding to MarR and inhibiting complex formation, whereas tetracycline and chloramphenicol, which neither bind MarR nor inhibit complex formation, must induce by an indirect mechanism.

Biosynthesis and metabolism of salicylic acid.

Pathways of salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis and metabolism in tobacco have been recently identified. SA, an endogenous regulator of disease resistance, is a product of phenylpropanoid metabolism formed via decarboxylation of trans-cinnamic acid to benzoic acid and its subsequent 2-hydroxylation to SA. In tobacco mosaic virus-inoculated tobacco leaves, newly synthesized SA is rapidly metabolized to SA O-beta-D-glucoside and methyl salicylate. Two key enzymes involved in SA biosynthesis and metabolism: benzoic acid 2-hydroxylase, which converts benzoic acid to SA, and UDPglucose:SA glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.35), which catalyzes conversion of SA to SA glucoside have been partially purified and characterized. Progress in enzymology and molecular biology of SA biosynthesis and metabolism will provide a better understanding of signal transduction pathway involved in plant disease resistance.

Salicylic acid mediates resistance to the vascular wilt pathogen Fusarium oxysporum in the model host Arabidopsis thaliana

Fusarium oxysporum is a soilborne fungal pathogen that causes major economic losses by inducing necrosis and wilting symptoms in many crop plants. In this study, the interaction between F. oxysporum and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana has been investigated to better understand the nature of host defences that are effective against the Fusarium wilt pathogen. The expression of salicylate- and jasmonate-responsive defence genes in F. oxysporum-challenged roots of A. thaliana plants as well as in the roots of plants whose leaves were treated with salicylate or jasmonate was analysed. Unexpectedly, genes (e.g. PR1, PDF1.2, and CHIB) encoding proteins with defensive functions or transcription factors (e.g. ERF1, AtERF2, AtERF4 and AtMYC2) known to positively or negatively regulate defences against F. oxysporum were not activated in F. oxysporum-inoculated roots. In contrast, the jasmonate-responsive defence gene PDF1.2 was induced in the leaves of plants whose roots were challenged with F. oxysporum, but the salicylate- responsive PR1 gene was not induced in the leaves of inoculated plants. Exogenous salicylic acid treatment prior to inoculation, however, activated PR1 and BGL2 defence gene expression in leaves and provided increased F. oxysporum resistance as evidenced by reduced foliar necrosis and plant death. Exogenous salicylic acid treatment of the foliar tissue did not activate defence gene expression in the roots of plants. This suggests that salicylate- dependent defences may function in foliar tissue to reduce the development of pathogen-induced wilting and necrosis. Despite the induction of defence gene expression in the leaves by jasmonate, this treatment did not lead to increased resistance to F. oxysporum. Overall, the results presented here suggest that the genetic manipulation of plant defence signalling pathways is a useful strategy to provide increased Fusarium wilt resistance.

The effects of equine skin preparation on transdermal drug penetration in vitro

An increasing number of formulations are applied to equine skin, yet variable penetration can affect efficacy, or the incidence of adverse effects, or both. To investigate the effects of common methods of skin preparation on transdermal drug penetration in vitro, we clipped, harvested, and froze skin samples from 5 Thoroughbred geldings. Thawed samples were prepared as follows: control (no preparation); cleaned with aqueous chlorhexidine (Aq-C, 0.1% w/v); cleaned with alcoholic chlorhexidine (Al-C, 0.5% w/v); shaved (Sh); or tape-stripped (Ta) with the use of adhesive tape. The samples were then placed in diffusion cells, and 2 g of methylsalicylate (MeSa) gel (Dencorub) was applied to the stratum corneum side. The penetration of MeSa and its analyte, salicylate (Sa), through the skin samples was measured over 10 h. Compared with control skin, significantly more MeSa penetrated through skin prepared with Al-C or Sh (P < 0.01) or with Aq-C or Ta (P < 0.05), and significantly more Sa was recovered in the receptor phase from skin prepared with Aq-C, Al-C, or Sh (P < 0.05) or with Ta (P < 0.01). A significantly higher rate of penetration and shorter lag time were also noted for MeSa with all the prepared skin samples, compared with the control samples. The results show that clinical techniques routinely used to clean or prepare skin can significantly affect the rate and extent of penetration of a topically applied drug. This may result in greater systemic availability of active drug, which could lead to enhanced efficacy and, possibly, a higher incidence of adverse effects.

The stability and formulation of topical analgesics

High-performance liquid chromatographic methods are developed for the simultaneous determination of various salicylates, their p-hydroxy isomers and nicotinic acid esters. The method is sensitive enough to detect trace amounts (~µM/L)of the product generated from cross reactivity between the drugs and the vehicle. The developed method also allows analysis of various topical products containing salicylate and nicotinate esters in their formulations. Applying this method, the degradation profiles of salicylates, nicotinates, p-hydroxy benzoate, o-methoxy benzoate and aspirin prodrugs in alkaline media are determined. The profile for alkyl salicylate degradation is found to be first order (A---? B) When the alcoholic radical is similar to that of the ester. In alcohol having a radical different from that of the ester function, the degradation is found to proceed through competitive transesterification and hydrolysis. The intermediates are identified following synthesis and isolation. The rate and extent of transesterification depends on the proportion of alcohol present in the system. Equations are presented to model the time profiles of reactant and product concentration. The reactions are base catalysed and the predominant pathway involves a concerted solvent attack upon the salicylate anion. Competitive hydrolysis of both ester components also follows this mechanism at moderate pH values but rates increase under strongly alkaline conditions as direct hydroxide attack becomes significant. In contrast, transesterification is independent of base concentration once full ionization is accomplished. The competitive hydrolysis is modelled using equations involving the dielectric constant of the medium. A range of other esters are also shown to undergo base-catalysed transesterification. In non-alcoholic solution phenyl salicylate undergoes a concentration-dependent oligomerisation which yields salsalate among the products. Competitive transesterification and hydrolysis also occur in products for topical use which have vehicles based upon alcohol, glycol or glycol polymers. Such reactions may compromise stability assessments, pharmaceutical integrity and delivery profiles.

Synthesis, crystal structure and spectroscopic characterization of a coordination polymer of copper(II) chloride with ethylenediamine and the 2-hydroxybenzoate ion

Peer reviewed

Synthesis, crystal structure and spectroscopic characterization of a coordination polymer of copper(II) chloride with ethylenediamine and the 2-hydroxybenzoate ion

Peer reviewed

Síntese de ligantes Bis-amida e aplicação em reações de acoplamento Suzuki

As amidas constituem uma classe de moléculas com amplo perfil farmacológico e que despertam atenção também pela capacidade de coordenar metais de transição. Esta proposta de trabalho compreende, inicialmente, a síntese de 3 ligantes bis-amidas simétricas tendo como reagentes de partida etilenodiamina, orto-fenilenodiamina, salicilato de metila e cloreto de benzoíla. Esses compostos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia no infravermelho (IV), ressonância magnética nuclear de hidrogênio (RMN 1H) e difração de raios X em monocristal (DRX). Após sintetizar e caracterizar esses compostos, a outra etapa do trabalho foi a utilização dessas bis-amidas como ligante na reação catalítica de acoplamento Suzuki. O sistema catalítico otimizado à base destes ligantes na presença de paládio, foi capaz de promover a formação de bifenilas com rendimentos superiores a 90% à temperatura de 50 °C e tempo reacional de 1 h. Este sistema se mostrou eficiente para reagentes com diversos grupos substituintes (eletroretiradores e eletrodoadores) nos anéis aromáticos dos haletos de arila e ácidos arilborônicos.

First report on Meloidogyne chitwoodi hatching inhibition activity of essential oils and essential oils fractions

The Columbia root-knot nematode (CRKN), Meloidogyne chitwoodi, is an EPPO A2 type quarantine pest since 1998. This nematode causes severe damage in economically important crops such as potato and tomato, making agricultural products unacceptable for the fresh market and food processing. Commonly used nematicidal synthetic chemicals are often environmentally unsafe. Essential oils (EOs) may constitute safer alternatives against RKN. EOs, isolated from 56 plant samples, were tested against CRKN hatching, in direct contact bioassays. Some of the most successful EOs were fractionated and the hydrocarbon molecules (HM) and oxygen-containing molecules (OCM) fractions tested separately. 24 EOs displayed very strong hatching inhibitions (≥90 %) at 2 µL mL−1 and were further tested at lower concentrations. Dysphaniaambrosioides, Filipendula ulmaria, Ruta graveolens, Satureja montana and Thymbra capitata EOs revealed the lowest EC50 values (<0.15 µL mL−1). The main compounds of these EOs, namely 2-undecanone, ascaridol, carvacrol, isoascaridol, methyl salicylate, p-cymene and/or γ-terpinene, were putatively considered responsible for CRKN hatching inhibition. S. montana and T. capitata OCM fractions showed hatching inhibitions higher than HM fractions. The comparison of EO and corresponding fractions EC50 values suggests interactions between OCM and HM fractions against CRKN hatching. These species EOs showed to be potential environmentally friendly CRKN hatching inhibitors; nonetheless, bioactivity should be considered globally, since its HM and OCM fractions may contribute, diversely, to the full anti-hatching activity.