Can overharvesting of a non-timber-forest-product change the regeneration dynamics of a tropical rainforest? The case study of Euterpe edulis

The exploitation of non-timber forest products is often considered a low-impact activity in tropical forests. However, assessments of the impacts of such activity are mostly focused on the harvested species and not on the plant community, thus limiting our understanding for establishing forest management recommendations. We investigated the consequences of Euterpe edulis palm heart harvesting on the seed rain in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest. We compared the density of E. edulis individuals, as well as the density of E. edulis seeds, and the density, richness and functional composition of seed rain of the whole plant community, before and after palm heart harvesting in a 10 ha permanent plot. This assessment was carried out in preserved (typical old-growth Atlantic rainforest) and in disturbed (more open habitat dominated by the native bamboo Guadua tagoara) forest patches. Palm harvesting reduced the E. edulis population from 202.16 to 25.67 ind/ha and its seed rain density from 0.362 to 0.3 seeds/m2 and from 2.395 to 0.15 seeds/m2 in preserved and disturbed forest patches, respectively. Seed density of light-dependent climbers, pioneer trees, bamboo and animal-dispersed seeds increased after palm harvesting, especially in the disturbed forest patches, where palm harvesting was more intense and may have changed the light regime of the understory. On the other hand, species richness of the plant community declined by half. We observed a remarkable decline in the number of animal-dispersed species, especially for those with large seeds, suggesting that the activity of seed dispersers, including many species attracted by E. edulis fruits, was reduced. Therefore, harvesting of E. edulis palm heart may change the regeneration dynamics of the Atlantic rainforest, both due to shifts in forest structure, mediated by the removal of individuals from the forest canopy, and in community functioning, mediated by the interference on the activity of seed dispersers. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Efeito da predação por Acanthoscelides schrankiae(Coleoptera: Bruchidae) e de altas temperaturas na germinação de sementes de Mimosa bimucronata (DC.) Kuntze (Fabaceae: Mimosoideae)

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Defaunação em uma área contínua de Mata Atlântica e consequências para o sub-bosque florestal

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Ecologia e comportamento do Cuxiú-Preto (Chiropotes Satanas) na paisagem fragmentada da Amazônia Oriental

Cuxiús são primatas frugívoros especializados na predação de sementes. O cuxiú-preto (Chiropotes satanas), atualmente ameaçado de extinção, é endêmico de uma área da Amazônia oriental brasileira bastante povoada e desmatada. O principal objetivo deste estudo foi pesquisar o comportamento e a ecologia de dois grupos de cuxiús-pretos vivendo sob diferentes graus de fragmentação de hábitat, de maneira a entender como parâmetros ecológicos nestes diferentes contextos influenciam estratégias comportamentais. Além disso, o estudo procurou identificar fatores que limitam a viabilidade a longo prazo do cuxiú-preto e coletar informações que possam contribuir com planos de manejo e conservação. O estudo foi realizado na margem direita do rio Tocantins, no reservatório de Tucuruí, Estado do Pará, Brasil (415'S, 4931'W). Dois grupos de cuxiús-pretos foram estudados: um (denominado T4) em um grande fragmento de floresta situado na margem do reservatório (1.300 ha, 39 indivíduos) e outro numa pequena ilha (19,4 ha, oito indivíduos) coberta por floresta. O comportamento dos dois grupos foi monitorado durante 12 meses (1.153 horas de observação) utilizando metodologias de amostragem por varredura e de todas as ocorrências por 4 a 5 dias consecutivos por mês por grupo. Além de coletar dados sobre seus orçamentos de atividades, todos os recursos alimentares utilizados foram documentados, os percursos diários anotados e as interações sociais intra e interespécies registradas. Transecções botânicas (10 x 100 ha) cobrindo um hectare no sítio T4 e 0,5 ha no sítio Ilha foram estabelecidas e uma subamostra de árvores (DAP ≥ 10 cm) e cipós (DAP ≥ 5 cm) foi marcada e medida para um inventário florístico e para a coleta de dados fenológicos que ocorreu em intervalos de 30 dias durante 14 meses. Os dois grupos diferiram em todos os aspectos de seu comportamento e ecologia. O tempo empregado em diferentes atividades variou significativamente entre eles. O deslocamento (35,4%) foi responsável pela maior proporção do orçamento de atividades anual do grupo T4, enquanto o grupo Ilha dedicou mais tempo para a alimentação (30,0%). Interações sociais foram responsáveis por uma proporção relativamente grande do orçamento de atividades dos dois grupos (T4 8,5%; Ilha 15,2%). Ao longo do periodo do estudo ambos os grupos consumiram um grande número de diferentes espécies vegetais (173 grupo T4; 132 grupo Ilha; 240 ambos) e suas dietas variaram significantemente tanto em termos de itens consumidos quanto em composição taxonômica, sendo que a dieta do grupo T4 foi mais diversa. Ambos os grupos despenderam a maior parte de seu tempo consumindo sementes (T4 54,0%; Ilha 59,9%), apesar de sua dieta também incluir outros itens tais como polpa de frutos (T4 25,0%; Ilha 13,7%), flores (T4 12,3%; Ilha 17,4%) e, em menor grau, medula de galhos e artrópodes. O grupo T4 utilizou uma área de 98,6 ha, enquanto os membros do grupo Ilha utilizaram 17,2 ha. O uso do espaço e o tamanho do percurso diário (T4 4025 m 994 m; Island 2807 m 289 m) variaram entre os grupos e estiveram ligados, no grupo T4, à variação no tamanho do grupo ao longo do ano resultante de seu sistema de organização social de fissão-fusão. Ao contrário, o grupo Ilha foi mais coeso. As diferenças na ecologia e comportamento dos dois grupos estiveram ligadas ás diferenças em seus respectivos hábitats. O tamanho dos sítios foi importante mas também o foi a variação na disponibilidade de alimentos determinada pela composição taxonômica da vegetação dos mesmos. Resultados do inventário florístico revelaram uma maior diversidade de espécies no sítio T4. No entanto importantes espécies alimentares estavam ausentes ou disponíveis em quantidades variáveis em ambos os sítios. Além do valor intrínseco do conhecimento sobre as características ecológicas do cuxiú-preto, o conhecimento detalhado acumulado neste estudo pode contribuir para a formulação de ações de conservação e planos de manejo, assim como para a identificação de fatores que limitam a viabilidade a longo prazo das populações remanescentes nas paisagens fragmentadas da Amazônia oriental.

Ecologia de cuxiús (Chiropotes Satanas) na Amazônia oriental: perspectivas para a conservação de populações fragmentadas

Encontrados na Amazônia brasileira do Maranhão ao Amazonas e Rondônia, os cuxiús (Chiropotes albinasus e Chiropotes satanas) são primatas especializados na predação de sementes. Visando caracterizar padrões de atividade e exploração de recursos alimentares, dois grupos sociais (TU e B4) de C. satanas foram monitorados entre julho e novembro de 2001 na área de influência do reservatório da UHE de Tucuruí (PA). O grupo IG (C.s. utahicki), de 24 indivíduos, ocupa uma ilha de 100 ha e o grupo B4 (C.s. satanas), com 27 indivíduos, habita uma área de mata contínua, ambas protegidas pela Eletronorte S.A. Dados quantitativos foram coletados em amostras de varredura, com intervalo de 5 min, realizadas continuamente durante 5 dias por mês. Observações complementares foram registradas de forma ad libitum durante todo o trabalho, de abril a novembro. Um total de 5490 registros foram coletados para o grupo IG (apenas o comportamento alimentar do grupo B4 foi analisado aqui), que foram distribuídos entre alimentação (58,8%), deslocamento (30,8%), parado (9,5%) e outras atividades (0,9%). Estas proporções variaram consideravelmente entre meses. Cento e dez espécies diferentes de plantas foram exploradas pelos cuxiús, mas não foi observada insetivoria. Como esperado, o componente maior da dieta foi semente em ambos os casos (grupo IG: 75,6%, n = 2721 registros, grupo B4: 49,6%, n = 1865). Flor, fruto, broto foliar e o mesocarpo de cocos de palmeiras complementaram a dieta. Padrão semelhante na variação do consumo de diferentes itens foi observado nos dois grupos entre setembro e novembro. A diversidade taxonômica da dieta do grupo IG foi maior do que a do B4, como também foi a área de vida (100 contra 57 ha). Não foi encontrado um padrão sistemático de variação no tamanho de agrupamento de forrageio. Os resultados do estudo indicam um potencial muito grande para a conservação a longo prazo de populações remanescentes de cuxiús na paisagem fragmentada da região. Palavras chave: Chiropotes satanas, fragmentação, dieta, orçamento de atividades, conservação.

Anthropogenic edges, isolation and the flowering time and fruit set of Anadenanthera peregrina, a cerrado savanna tree

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Age of No-Till System and Nitrogen Management on Common Bean Nutrition and Yield

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Genetic dynamics across early life stages in the tropical tree Prunus africana (Rosaceae)

In many plant species, the genetic template of early life-stages is formed by animal-mediated pollination and seed dispersal and has profound impact on further recruitment and population dynamics. Understanding the impact of pollination and seed dispersal on genetic patterns is a central issue in plant population biology. In my thesis, I investigated (i) contemporary dispersal and gene flow distances as well as (ii) genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure (SGS) across subsequent recruitment stages in a population of the animal-pollinated and dispersed tree Prunus africana in Kakamega Forest, West Kenya. Using microsatellite markers and parentage analyses, I inferred distances of pollen dispersal (father-to-mother), seed dispersal/maternal gene flow (mother-to-offspring) as well as paternal gene flow (father-to-offspring) for four early life stages of the species (seeds and fruits, current year seedlings, seedlings ≤ 3yr, seedlings > 3yr). Distances of pollen and seed dispersal as well as paternal gene flow were significantly shorter than expected from the spatial arrangement of trees and sampling plots. They were not affected by the density of conspecific trees in the surrounding. At the propagule stage, mean pollen dispersal distances were considerably (23-fold) longer than seed dispersal distances, and paternal gene flow distances exceeded maternal gene flow by a factor of 25. Seed dispersal distances were remarkably restricted, potentially leading to a strong initial SGS. The initial genetic template created by pollination and seed dispersal was extensively altered during later recruitment stages. Potential Janzen-Connell effects led to markedly increasing distances between offspring and both parental trees in older life stages. This showed that distance and density-dependent mortality factors are not exclusively related to the mother tree, but also to the father. Across subsequent recruitment stages, the pollen to seed dispersal ratio and the paternal to maternal gene flow ratio dropped to 2.1 and 3.4, respectively, in seedlings > 3yr. The relative changes in effective pollen dispersal, seed dispersal, and paternal gene flow distances across recruitment stages elucidate the mechanisms affecting the contribution of the two processes pollen and seed dispersal to overall gene flow. Using the same six microsatellite loci, I analyzed genetic diversity and SGS across five life stages, from seed rain to adults. Levels of genetic diversity within the studied P. africana population were comparable to other Prunus species and did not vary across life stages. In congruence with the short seed dispersal distances, I found significant SGS in all life stages. SGS decreased from seed and early seedling stages to older juvenile stages, and it was higher in adults than in late juveniles of the next generation. A comparison of the data with direct assessments of contemporary gene flow patterns indicate that distance- or density-dependent mortality, potentially due to Janzen-Connell effects, led to the initial decrease in SGS. Intergeneration variation in SGS could have been driven by variation in demographic processes, the effect of overlapping generations, and local selection processes. Overall, my study showed that complex sequential processes during recruitment contribute to the spatial genetic structure of tree populations. It highlights the importance of a multistage perspective for a comprehensive understanding of the impact of animal-mediated pollen and seed dispersal on spatial population dynamics and genetic patterns of trees.

Population viability analyses of Chamaecrista keyensis (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae), a narrowly endemic herb of the lower Florida Keys: Effects of seasonal timing of fires and the urban -wildland interface

This research first evaluated the effects of urban wildland interface on reproductive biology of the Big Pine Partridge Pea, Chamaecrista keyensis, an understory herb that is endemic to Big Pine Key, Florida. I found that C. keyensis was self-compatible, but depended on bees for seed set. Furthermore, individuals of C. keyensis in urban habitats suffered higher seed predation and therefore set fewer seeds than forest interior plants. ^ I then focused on the effects of fire at different times of the year, summer (wet) and winter (dry), on the population dynamics and population viability of C. keyensis. I found that C. keyensis population recovered faster after winter burns and early summer burns (May–June) than after late summer burns (July–September) due to better survival and seedling recruitment following former fires. Fire intensity had positive effects on reproduction of C. keyensis. In contrast, no significant fire intensity effects were found on survival, growth, and seedling recruitment. This indicated that better survival and seedling recruitment following winter and early summer burns (compared with late summer burns) were due to the reproductive phenology of the plant in relation to fires rather than differences in fire intensity. Deterministic population modeling showed that time since fire significantly affected the finite population growth rates (λ). Particularly, recently burned plots had the largest λ. In addition, effects of timing of fires on λ were most pronounced the year of burn, but not the subsequent years. The elasticity analyses suggested that maximizing survival is an effective way to minimize the reduction in finite population growth rate the year of burn. Early summer fires or dry-season fires may achieve this objective. Finally, stochastic simulations indicated that the C. keyensis population had lower extinction risk and population decline probability if burned in the winter than in the late summer. A fire frequency of approximately 7 years would create the lowest extinction probability for C. keyensis. A fire management regime including a wide range of burning seasons may be essential for the continued existence of C. keyensis and other endemic species of pine rockland on Big Pine Key. ^

Leftovers in seed dispersal: ecological implications of partial seed consumption for oak regeneration

1. Successful seed dispersal by animals is assumed to occur when undamaged seeds arrive at a favourable microsite. Most seed removal and dispersal studies consider only two possible seed fates, predation or escape intact. Whether partial consumption of seeds has ecological implications for natural regeneration is unclear. We studied partial consumption of seeds in a rodent-dispersed oak species. 2. Fifteen percent of dispersed acorns were found partially eaten in a field experiment. Most damage affected only the basal portion of the seeds, resulting in no embryo damage. Partially eaten acorns had no differences in dispersal distance compared to intact acorns but were recovered at farther distances than completely consumed acorns. 3. Partially eaten acorns were found under shrub cover unlike intact acorns that were mostly dispersed to open microhabitats. 4. Partially eaten acorns were not found buried proportionally more often than intact acorns, leading to desiccation and exposure to biotic agents (predators, bacteria and fungi). However, partial consumption caused more rapid germination, which enables the acorns to tolerate the negative effects of exposure. 5. Re-caching and shrub cover as microhabitat of destination promote partial seed consumption. Larger acorns escaped predation more often and had higher uneaten cotyledon mass. Satiation at seed level is the most plausible explanation for partial consumption. 6. Partial consumption caused no differences in root biomass when acorns experienced only small cotyledon loss. However, root biomass was lower when acorns experienced heavy loss of tissue but, surprisingly, they produced longer roots, which allow the seeds to gain access sooner to deeper resources. 7.Synthesis. Partial consumption of acorns is an important event in the oak regeneration process, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Most acorns were damaged non-lethally, without decreasing both dispersal distances and the probability of successful establishment. Faster germination and production of longer roots allow partially eaten seeds to tolerate better the exposure disadvantages caused by the removal of the pericarp and the non-buried deposition. Consequently, partially consumed seeds can contribute significantly to natural regeneration and must be considered in future seed dispersal studies.

Seed dispersal of Solanum thomasiifolium Sendtner (Solanaceae) in the Linhares Forest, Espírito Santo state, Brazil

The aim of this study was to analyse seed dispersal and establishment of Solanum thomasiifolium in an area of nativo vegetation in Espirito Santo state on the southeastern Brazilian coast. Ten species of birds, the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), and one species of lizard (Tropidurus torquatus) fed on S. thomasiifolium fruits and dispersed viable seeds in their faeces. The proportional contribution of each of these groups to seed dispersal was 77% (birds), 19% (crab-eating fox) and 4% (lizards). Ants also contributed to seed dispersal. More seeds were deposited in vegetation islands than in the surrounding open areas. Germination rates of seeds collected directly from fruit (control), bird droppings, the faeces of crab-eating foxes and lizards were, respectively, 64, 64, 53, and 80 %. Differences among these rates were all significant, except between birds and control. Lizards were important as seed carriers between nearby islands and they expelled a higher proportion of viable seeds. Birds and the crab-eating foxes did not enhance seed germination, but promoted seed dispersal over a wider area. Plant architecture, fruit productivity, fruit characteristics and the diversity of frugivores are important for the success of S. thomasiifolium in habitat colonization.

The Missing Part of Seed Dispersal Networks: Structure and Robustness of Bat-Fruit Interactions

Mutualistic networks are crucial to the maintenance of ecosystem services. Unfortunately, what we know about seed dispersal networks is based only on bird-fruit interactions. Therefore, we aimed at filling part of this gap by investigating bat-fruit networks. It is known from population studies that: (i) some bat species depend more on fruits than others, and (ii) that some specialized frugivorous bats prefer particular plant genera. We tested whether those preferences affected the structure and robustness of the whole network and the functional roles of species. Nine bat-fruit datasets from the literature were analyzed and all networks showed lower complementary specialization (H(2)' = 0.3760.10, mean 6 SD) and similar nestedness (NODF = 0.5660.12) than pollination networks. All networks were modular (M=0.32 +/- 0.07), and had on average four cohesive subgroups (modules) of tightly connected bats and plants. The composition of those modules followed the genus-genus associations observed at population level (Artibeus-Ficus, Carollia-Piper, and Sturnira-Solanum), although a few of those plant genera were dispersed also by other bats. Bat-fruit networks showed high robustness to simulated cumulative removals of both bats (R = 0.55 +/- 0.10) and plants (R = 0.68 +/- 0.09). Primary frugivores interacted with a larger proportion of the plants available and also occupied more central positions; furthermore, their extinction caused larger changes in network structure. We conclude that bat-fruit networks are highly cohesive and robust mutualistic systems, in which redundancy is high within modules, although modules are complementary to each other. Dietary specialization seems to be an important structuring factor that affects the topology, the guild structure and functional roles in bat-fruit networks.

Chemical analyses confirm a rare case of seed dispersal by bees

It has been suggested that dispersal of seeds of Coussapoa asperifolia magnifolia could have endozoochoric dispersal by frugivorous birds and monkeys because the fruits are red when ripe, or exozoochoric dispersal, because the exocarp is mucilaginous and sticky. However, our field observations showed only stingless bees collecting the exocarp with seeds of C. asperifolia magnifolia, which are used for building and repairing their nests, from which the plants sprout. This paper aimed to determine the fruit chemical composition, since we postulated that C. asperifolia magnifolia is neither consumed by birds nor monkeys due to being very sticky and apparently resinous. Apolar extract analyses revealed the fruits are not resinous but extremely rich in waxes ( mainly esterified triglycerides), and polar extract analyses revealed the sugar content to be close to the sensorial minimum level. This probably accounts for why only stingless bees are seen visiting fruits and dispersing seeds.

Secondary seed dispersal of Ricinus communis Linnaeus (Euphorbiaceae) by ants in secondary growth vegetation in Minas Gerais

In this study, I tested the efficacy of ants as secondary seed dispersers of Ricinus communis in southeastern Brazil. In a natural population of 143 individuals, I determined the ballistic dispersal distance for 62 seeds and 100 additional seeds were experimentally offered to ants in groups of ten seeds along a transect of 50 m. Fifty-three seeds were removed by ants, mainly by the leafcutter Atta sexdens (90.4%). The dispersal distance by ants was high, compared to the global average (4.38 m ± 0.74 m vs. 0.96 m), but was lower than the ballistic distance (7.27 m ± 0.13 m). Ants increased the total dispersal distance (8.66 m ± 0.60 m), but the main benefit for the plant was the directed dispersal, with seed deposition on the enriched soil of ant nests.