Locus of control as a predictor of students dropping out of high school

Education is related to health. In cross-sectional data, education level has been associated with physical functioning. Also, lower levels of education have been associated with health behaviors including smoking, alcohol use, and greater body weight. In school, students may benefit from greater exposed to health-related messages, while students who have dropped out may be more susceptible to influences regarding negative health behaviors such as smoking. ^ Improved school retention might improve long-term health outcomes. However, there is limited evidence regarding modifiable factors that predict likelihood of dropping out. Two likely psychosocial measures are locus of control and parent-child academic conversations. In the current study, data from two waves of a population-based longitudinal survey, the National Education Longitudinal Survey, were utilized to evaluate whether these two psychosocial measures could predict likelihood of dropping out, for students (n = 16,749) in tenth grade at 1990, with dropout status determined at 1992, while controlling for recognized sociodemographic predictors including parental income, parental education level, race/ethnicity, and sex. Locus of control was measured with the Pearlin Mastery Scale, and parent-child academic conversations were measured by three questions concerning course selection at school, school activities and events, and things the student studied in class. ^ In a logistic regression model, with the sociodemographic control measures entered in a first step before entry of the psychosocial measures in a second step, this study determined that lower levels of locus of control were associated with greater likelihood of dropping out after two years (odds ratio (OR) = 1.11, 95% confidence interval (CI) 108 to 1.15, p < .001), and two of the three parent-child academic discussion items were associated with greater likelihood of dropping out after two years (OR = 1.69, CI 1.48-1.93, p < .001; OR = 1.22, CI 1.05-1.41, p = .01; OR = 1.01, CI .88-1.15, p = .94). ^ It is possible that interventions aimed at improving locus of control, and aimed at building parent-child academic conversations, could lower the likelihood of students dropping out, and this in turn could yield improved heath behaviors and health status in the child's future. ^

Does parental monitoring influence the use of alcohol and drugs among inner city 7th grade students?

Objective. To examine associations between parental monitoring and adolescent alcohol/drug use. ^ Methods. 981 7th grade students from 10 inner-city middle schools were surveyed at the 3 month follow-up of an HIV, STD, and pregnancy prevention program. Data from 549 control subjects were used for analyses. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine associations between five parental monitoring variables and substance use, coded as: low risk [never drank alcohol or used drugs (0)], moderate risk [drank alcohol, no drug use (1)], and high risk [both drank alcohol and used drugs or just used drugs (2)]. ^ Results. Participants were 58.3% female, 39.6% African American, 43.8% Hispanic, mean age 13.3 years. Lifetime alcohol use was 47.9%. Lifetime drug use was 14.9%. Adjusted for gender, age, race, and family structure, each individual parental monitoring variable (perceived parental monitoring, less permissive parental monitoring, greater supervision (public places), greater supervision (teen clubs), and less time spent with older teens) was significant and protective for the moderate and high risk groups. When all 5 variables were entered into a single model, only perceived parental monitoring was significantly associated (OR=0.40, 95% CI 0.29-0.55) for the moderate risk group. For the high risk group, 3 variables were significantly protective (perceived parental monitoring OR=0.28, CI 0.18-0.42, less time spent with older teens OR=0.75, CI 0.60-0.93, and greater supervision (public places) OR=0.79, CI 0.64-0.99). ^ Conclusion. The association between parental monitoring and substance abuse is complex and varied for different risk levels. Implications for intervention development are addressed. ^

Healthcare provider perspectives on parental refusal of medical interventions: A qualitative study

Background. Healthcare providers in pediatrics are faced with parents making medical decisions for their children. Refusal to consent to interventions can have life threatening sequelae, yet healthcare workers are provided little training in handling refusals. The healthcare provider's experience in parental refusal has not been well described, yet is an important first step in addressing this problem. ^ Specific aims. Describe: (1) the decision-making processes made by healthcare providers when parents refuse medical interventions for their children, (2) the source of healthcare workers' skills in handling situations of refusal, and (3) the perspectives of healthcare workers on parental refusals in the inpatient setting. ^ Methods. Nurses, physicians and respiratory therapists (RT) were recruited via e-mail at Texas Children's Hospital (TCH). Interview questions were developed using Social Cognitive Theory constructs and validated. One-on-one in-depth, one hour semi-structured interviews were held at TCH, audio recorded and transcribed. Coding and analysis were done using ATLAS ti. The constant comparative method was applied to describe emergent themes that were reviewed by an independent expert. ^ Results. Interviews have been conducted with nurses (n=6), physicians and practitioners (n=6), social workers (n=3) and RT (n=3) comprising 13 females and 5 males with 3–25 years of experience. Decision-making processes relate to the experience of the caregiver, familiarity with the family, and the acuity of the patient. Healthcare workers' skills were obtained through orientation processes or by trial-and-error. Themes emerged that related to the importance of: (1) Communication, where the initial discussion about a medical procedure should be done with clarity and an understanding of the parents' views; (2) Perceived loss of control by parents, a key factor in their refusal of interventions; and (3) Training, the need for skill development to handle refusals. ^ Conclusions. Effective training involving clarity in communication and a preservation of perceived control by parents is needed to avoid the current trial-and-error experience of healthcare workers in negotiating refusal situations. Such training could lessen the more serious outcomes of parental refusal. ^

Parental acculturation and adolescent HPV uptake among Hispanics: Results from the California Health Interview Survey

Background. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the American Cancer Society (ACS), and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) all recommend the HPV vaccine for girls 11-12. The vaccine has the potential to reduce cervical cancer disparities if it is used by populations that do not participate in screening. Evidence suggests that incidence and mortality are higher among Hispanic women compared to non-Hispanic white women because they do not participate in screening. Past literature has found that acculturation has a mixed effect on cervical cancer screening and immunization. Little is known about whether parental acculturation is associated with adolescent HPV vaccine uptake among Hispanics and the mechanisms through which acculturation may affect vaccine uptake.^ Aims. To examine the association between parental acculturation and adolescent HPV uptake among Hispanics in California and test the structural hypothesis of acculturation by determining if socioeconomic status (SES) and health care access mediate the association between acculturation and HPV vaccine uptake.^ Methods. Cross-sectional data from the 2007 California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) were used for bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. The sample used for analysis included 1,090 Hispanic parents, with a daughter age 11-17, who answered questions about the HPV vaccine. Outcome variable of interest was HPV vaccine uptake (≥1dose). Independent variables of interest were language spoken at home (a proxy variable for acculturation), household income (percent of federal poverty level), education level, and health care access (combined measure of health insurance coverage and usual source of care).^ Results. Parents who spoke only English or English and Spanish in the home were more likely to get the HPV vaccine for their daughter than parents who only spoke Spanish (Odds Ratio [OR]: 0.55, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.31-0.98). When SES and health care access variables were added to the logistic regression model, the association between language acculturation and HPV vaccine uptake became non-significant (OR: 0.68, 95% CI: 0.35-1.29). Both income and health care access were associated with uptake. Parents with lower income or who did not have insurance and a usual source of care were less likely to have a vaccinated daughter.^ Discussion. Socioeconomic status and health care access have a more proximal effect on HPV vaccine uptake than parental language acculturation among Hispanics in California.^ Conclusion. This study found support for the structural hypothesis of acculturation and suggest that interventions focus on informing low SES parents who lack access to health care about programs that provide free HPV vaccines.^

A case-control study to identify risk factors for preterm labor in Colorado Springs, Colorado

The study objectives were to determine risk factors for preterm labor (PTL) in Colorado Springs, CO, with emphasis on altitude and psychosocial factors, and to develop a model that identifies women at high risk for PTL. Three hundred and thirty patients with PTL were matched to 460 control patients without PTL using insurance category as an indirect measure of social class. Data were gathered by patient interview and review of medical records. Seven risk groups were compared: (1) Altitude change and travel; (2) Psychosocial ((a) child, sexual, spouse, alcohol and drug abuse; (b) neuroses and psychoses; (c) serious accidents and injuries; (d) broken home (maternal parental separation); (e) assault (physical and sexual); and (f) stress (emotional, domestic, occupational, financial and general)); (3) demographic; (4) maternal physical condition; (5) Prenatal care; (6) Behavioral risks; and (7) Medical factors. Analysis was by logistic regression. Results demonstrated altitude change before or after conception and travel during pregnancy to be non-significant, even after adjustment for potential confounding variables. Five significant psychosocial risk factors were determined: Maternal sex abuse (p = 0.006), physical assault (p = 0.025), nervous breakdown (p = 0.011), past occupational injury (p = 0.016), and occupational stress (p = 0.028). Considering all seven risk groups in the logistic regression, we chose a logistic model with 11 risk factors. Two risk factors were psychosocial (maternal spouse abuse and past occupational injury), 1 was pertinent to maternal physical condition ($\le$130 lbs. pre-pregnancy weight), 1 to prenatal care ($\le$10 prenatal care visits), 2 pertinent to behavioral risks ($>$15 cigarettes per day and $\le$30 lbs. weight gain) and 5 medical factors (abnormal genital culture, previous PTB, primiparity, vaginal bleeding and vaginal discharge). We conclude that altitude change is not a risk factor for PTL and that selected psychosocial factors are significant risk factors for PTL. ^

RELATIONSHIP OF ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY SYNDROME IN BOYS TO PARENTAL ALCOHOL/DRUG DEPENDENCY

The study focused on the relationship between antisocial personality syndrome in boys ages 8-15 and parental alcohol/drug dependency. The population studied was case records of 101 boys coming to a private psychiatrist from 1966 through 1979. The boys were predominantly white and from middle to upper income families.^ A boy was determined to have antisocial personality syndrome if he exhibited antisocial behaviors in four or five major categories, did not exhibit a brain syndrome, and did not exhibit a thought disorder. The five major behavior categories were: (1) self-control (i.e., temper tantrums or hyperactivity), (2) behavior at home (i.e., disobedience or lying), (3) behavior at school (i.e., truancy or cheating), (4) behavior toward peers (i.e., bullying, fighting, or tattling), and (5) behavior against property (i.e., destructiveness or stealing). A boy was determined to be a control if he exhibited antisocial behaviors in two or less behavior categories.^ A parent was determined to have alcohol/drug dependency if s/he exhibited a score above the established threshold (1) for the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale (28 or above), and (2) for the Holmes Alcoholism Scale (35 or above) which are used with the MMPI. A parent was classified not alcohol/drug dependent if s/he had scores below set thresholds (22 on the MacAndrew Alcoholism Scale and 28 on the Holmes Alcoholism Scale).^ For the final sample (N = 10), there was no reason to believe a relationship exists between antisocial personality syndrome in boys ages 8-15 and parental alcohol/drug dependency (Fisher's Exact Test {FET} P = 1.0). The small sample size primarily occurred as a result of 88.12% of the parents being classified in a questionable category in terms of alcohol/drug dependency.^ The sample was suggestive of a relationship between the fathers' Psychopathic Deviate (Pd) Scale scores as a measure of antisocial tendencies and the boy having antisocial personality syndrome (N = 75; P = .12). There was no evidence of such a relationship for mothers (N = 75; P = .97). ^

Exploring parental factors and their influence on early adolescent sexual health

Black and Hispanic youth experience the largest burden of sexually transmitted infections, teen pregnancy, and childbirth (Hamilton, Martin, & Ventura, 2011). Minority youth are disporportionately more likely to sexually debut at every age and debut before the age of 13 compared to whites (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). However, there is little known about pre-coital sexual activity or protective parental factors in early adolscent minority youth. Parental factors such as parent-child communication and parental monitoring influence adolescent sexual behaviors and pre-coital sexual behaviors in early adolescence. Three distinct methods were used in this dissertation. Study one used qualitative methods, semi-structured, in-depth, individual interviews, to explore parent-child communication in African American mother-early adolescent son dyads. Study two used quantitative methods, secondary data analysis of a cross sectional study, to conduct a moderation analysis. For study three, I conducted a systematic review of parent-based adolescent sexual health interventions. Study one found that mothers feel comfortable talking about sex with adolescents, provide a two-prong sexual health message, and want their sons to tell their when they are thinking of having sex. Study found that parental monitoring moderates the relation between parent-child communication and pre-coital sexual behaviors. Study three found that interventions use a variety of theory, methods, and strategies and that no parent-based programs target faith-based organizations, mother-son or father-daughter dyads, or parents of LGBTQ youth. Adolescent sexual health interventions should consider addressing youth-to-parent disclosure of sexual activity or intentions to debut, addressing both parent-child sexual health communication and parental monitoring, and using a theoretical framework.^

(Table 1) Breeding parameters for 60 male Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) at station Dumont d'Urville (Antarctica) depending on treatment (control vs. CORT)

Corticosterone, the main stress hormone in birds, mediates resource allocation, allowing animals to adjust their physiology and behaviour to changes in the environment. Incubation is a time and energy-consuming phase of the avian reproductive cycle. It may be terminated prematurely, when the parents' energy stores are depleted or when environmental conditions are severe. In this study, the effects of experimentally elevated baseline corticosterone levels on the parental investment of incubating male Adelie penguins were investigated. Incubation duration and reproductive success of 60 penguins were recorded. The clutches of some birds were replaced by dummy eggs, which recorded egg temperatures and rotation rates, enabling a detailed investigation of incubation behaviour. Corticosterone levels of treated birds were 2.4-fold higher than those of controls 18 days post treatment. Exogenous corticosterone triggered nest desertion in 61% of the treated birds; consequently reducing reproductive success, indicating that corticosterone can reduce or disrupt parental investment. Regarding egg temperatures, hypothermic events became more frequent and more pronounced in treated birds, before these birds eventually abandoned their nest. The treatment also significantly decreased incubation temperatures by 1.3 °C and lengthened the incubation period by 2.1 days. However, the number of chicks at hatching was similar among successful nests, regardless of treatment. Weather conditions appeared to be particularly important in determining the extent to which corticosterone levels affected the behaviour of penguins, as treated penguins were more sensitive to severe weather conditions. This underlines the importance of considering the interactions of organisms with their environment in studies of animal behaviour and ecophysiology.

Structure of the imprinted mouse Snrpn gene and establishment of its parental-specific methylation pattern

The mouse Snrpn gene encodes the Smn protein, which is involved in RNA splicing. The gene maps to a region in the central part of chromosome 7 that is syntenic to the Prader–Willi/Angelman syndromes (PWS-AS) region on human chromosome 15q11-q13. The mouse gene, like its human counterpart, is imprinted and paternally expressed, primarily in brain and heart. We provide here a detailed description of the structural features and differential methylation pattern of the gene. We have identified a maternally methylated region at the 5′ end (DMR1), which correlates inversely with the Snrpn paternal expression. We also describe a region at the 3′ end of the gene (DMR2) that is preferentially methylated on the paternal allele. Analysis of Snrpn mRNA levels in a methylase-deficient mouse embryo revealed that maternal methylation of DMR1 may play a role in silencing the maternal allele. Yet both regions, DMR1 and DMR2, inherit the parental-specific methylation profile from the gametes. This methylation pattern is erased in 12.5-days postcoitum (dpc) primordial germ cells and reestablished during gametogenesis. DMR1 is remethylated during oogenesis, whereas DMR2 is remethylated during spermatogenesis. Once established, these methylation patterns are transmitted to the embryo and maintained, protected from methylation changes during embryogenesis and cell differentiation. Transfections of DMR1 and DMR2 into embryonic stem cells and injection into pronuclei of fertilized eggs reveal that embryonic cells lack the capacity to establish anew the differential methylation pattern of Snrpn. That all PWS patients lack DMR1, together with the overall high resemblance of the mouse gene to the human SNRPN, offers an excellent experimental tool to study the regional control of this imprinted chromosomal domain.

Multiple imprinted sense and antisense transcripts, differential methylation and tandem repeats in a putative imprinting control region upstream of mouse Igf2

The mouse insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) locus is a complex genomic region that produces multiple transcripts from alternative promoters. Expression at this locus is regulated by parental imprinting. However, despite the existence of putative imprinting control elements in the Igf2 upstream region, imprinted transcriptional repression is abolished by null mutations at the linked H19 locus. To clarify the extent to which the Igf2 upstream region contains autonomous imprinting control elements we have performed functional and comparative analyses of the region in the mouse and human. Here we report the existence of multiple, overlapping imprinted (maternally repressed) sense and antisense transcripts that are associated with a tandem repeat in the mouse Igf2 upstream region. Regions flanking the repeat exhibit tissue-specific parental allelic methylation patterns, suggesting the existence of tissue-specific control elements in the upstream region. Studies in H19 null mice indicate that both parental allelic methylation and monoallelic expression of the upstream transcripts depends on an intact H19 gene acting in cis. The homologous region in human IGF2 is structurally conserved, with the significant exception that it does not contain a tandem repeat. Our results support the proposal that tandem repeats act to target methylation to imprinted genetic loci.

Corrélats neuronaux du circuit des récompenses chez les jeunes à risque parental de troubles de l'humeur

Cette thèse a pour objectif l’investigation du circuit des récompenses, sur les plans comportementaux et neuronaux, chez des adolescents à risque parental élevé de dépression majeure et de trouble bipolaire, en comparaison à des jeunes à risque parental peu élevé. Plus précisément, le but est d’identifier des marqueurs comportementaux et neuronaux du risque de développer une dépression majeure ou un trouble bipolaire, afin d’être en mesure de détecter et de prévenir ces troubles le plus tôt possible pour éviter, ou du moins retarder, leur émergence. Pour ce faire, nous avons réalisé deux études, présentées ici dans deux articles empiriques. Dans le premier article, le fonctionnement comportemental et neuronal du circuit des récompenses a été investigué au moyen d’une tâche d’anticipation et d’obtention de gains et de pertes monétaires, chez des adolescents à risque parental de dépression majeure (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont un des parents souffre de dépression majeure), des adolescents à risque parental de trouble bipolaire (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont un des parents souffre de trouble bipolaire) et des adolescents contrôles (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont les deux parents sont en bonne santé mentale). Au niveau comportemental, les résultats ont révélé une meilleure performance chez les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure lorsqu’ils devaient éviter d’obtenir des pertes monétaires de magnitude variée (0,20$, 1$ ou 5$), ainsi qu’une meilleure performance chez les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire sur les essais impliquant d’éviter des pertes monétaires de magnitude nulle (0$). Au niveau neuronal, les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure démontraient une diminution de l’activation du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral lors de l’anticipation de potentielles pertes monétaires de magnitude variée, tandis que les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire démontraient une diminution de l’activation du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral lors de l’anticipation de potentielles pertes monétaires de magnitude nulle. De plus, les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure tendaient à démontrer une augmentation de l’activité du cortex orbitofrontal durant l’évitement réussi de pertes monétaires, tandis que les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire tendaient à démontrer une augmentation de l’activité du cortex orbitofrontal lors de l’obtention de pertes monétaires. Dans le deuxième article, l’intégrité structurelle des régions fronto-limbiques a été investiguée, au moyen de mesures du volume, de l’épaisseur corticale et de la superficie corticale. Les résultats ont mis en évidence, chez les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire, un volume plus élevé du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral, par rapport aux jeunes à risque de dépression majeure et contrôles. De plus, les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire présentaient un volume plus élevé du cortex cingulaire postérieur, en comparaison aux jeunes à risque de dépression majeure. Enfin, une diminution de l’épaisseur corticale du cortex orbitofrontal et du gyrus frontal moyen a été observée chez les adolescents à risque de trouble bipolaire, en comparaison au groupe contrôle. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre ainsi l’existence de particularités comportementales et d’altérations neuronales sur les plans fonctionnel et structurel, chez des jeunes à risque élevé de troubles de l’humeur, et ce, avant même l’émergence des premiers symptômes thymiques. Plus particulièrement, ces caractéristiques pourraient constituer des marqueurs du risque de développer un trouble de l’humeur. Par conséquent, ces marqueurs pourraient aider à mieux identifier les jeunes qui sont le plus à risque de développer un trouble de l’humeur, et ainsi permettre la mise en place précoce de stratégies préventives adaptées, afin d’éviter des trajectoires développementales psychopathologiques.

Evolução da perceção parental da imagem corporal da criança : análise retrospetiva de dois estudos

Introdução: A obesidade é reconhecida pela OMS como um importante problema de saúde pública, que afeta adultos, crianças e adolescentes e que tem tomado proporções epidémicas em todo o mundo. Os estudos revelam que os pais, mas sobretudo as mães se mostram preocupadas e concordam com a adoção de hábitos alimentares saudáveis, no entanto a perceção que estas têm do estado nutricional dos filhos nem sempre é adequada e frequentemente a imagem corporal é distorcida, percebendo-se contudo que esta distorção tem vindo a diminuir. Foi neste âmbito que emergiu como objetivo geral deste estudo, explorar a evolução da perceção parental da imagem corporal da criança em dois estudos, estudo A (Graça Aparício) e estudo B (Graça Aparício, Madalena Cunha, João Duarte; Anabela Pereira, Jorge Bonito, Carlos Albuquerque), publicados respetivamente, em 2012 e 2013 e relacioná-la com o comportamento alimentar da criança do estudo B. Material e métodos: Este estudo de carácter retrospetivo e transversal, foi realizado com as crianças que participaram no estudo A e no estudo B, num total de 2216 crianças em idade pré-escolar, média idade= 4.51 anos (±0.97Dp), residentes as crianças do estudo A na região de Viseu e Dão e as do estudo B, nas regiões Viseu, Lamego, Vila Real, Évora e Leiria, tendo sido efetuada pelos autores originais, uma avaliação antropométrica e classificação nutricional das crianças com base no referencial NCHS (CDC, 2000). Para a recolha de dados os autores originais, utilizaram um Questionário de Caracterização Sociodemográfica das Crianças e dos Progenitores; o Questionário de Avaliação da Perceção Parental da Imagem Corporal da criança (Collins, 1991) e o Questionário de Caracterização do Comportamento Alimentar Infantil (CEBQ), traduzido e validado para a população portuguesa por Viana & Sinde (2008). Resultados: Comparativamente ao estudo A, no estudo B os pais revelaram-se significativamente mais preocupados com o estado nutricional dos seus filhos (p= 0,000). Ainda no estudo B uma maior percentagem de pais assinala as imagens representativas de pré-obesidade (27,5%) e obesidade (0,6%), comparativamente ao estudo A, onde se verifica o oposto; uma maior sinalização das crianças no grupo da normalidade e baixo-peso (56,3% e 20,4% respetivamente). Apurou-se uma diferença de médias significativa da perceção parental da imagem corporal da criança entre o estudo A e o estudo B, evidenciando a perceção dos pais, a uma maior aproximação com os valores mais elevados de IMC dos filhos, ou seja, os pais têm uma perceção menos distorcida da imagem corporal dos filhos, quando estes apresentam valores de IMC mais elevados. Relativamente ao comportamento alimentar, apesar dos comportamentos de “atração pela comida” se associarem a uma perceção parental de imagem corporal maior, e de alguns dos comportamentos de “evitamento da comida” se associarem a uma perceção parental de imagem corporal menor, a relação entre o comportamento alimentar e a perceção parental da imagem corporal criança não se revelou significativa. Conclusões: Os resultados indicam uma maior acurácia da perceção da imagem corporal dos pais ao real estado nutricional dos filhos, podendo este facto ser o primeiro passo para o seu reconhecimento do excesso de peso dos seus filhos e facilitar a adequação a um estilo de vida mais saudável entre as crianças em idade pré-escolar, e maior sensibilização da família para o controlo do excesso de peso na infância. Palavras-chave: Perceção parental, imagem corporal, Obesidade infantil.

Corrélats neuronaux du circuit des récompenses chez les jeunes à risque parental de troubles de l'humeur

Cette thèse a pour objectif l’investigation du circuit des récompenses, sur les plans comportementaux et neuronaux, chez des adolescents à risque parental élevé de dépression majeure et de trouble bipolaire, en comparaison à des jeunes à risque parental peu élevé. Plus précisément, le but est d’identifier des marqueurs comportementaux et neuronaux du risque de développer une dépression majeure ou un trouble bipolaire, afin d’être en mesure de détecter et de prévenir ces troubles le plus tôt possible pour éviter, ou du moins retarder, leur émergence. Pour ce faire, nous avons réalisé deux études, présentées ici dans deux articles empiriques. Dans le premier article, le fonctionnement comportemental et neuronal du circuit des récompenses a été investigué au moyen d’une tâche d’anticipation et d’obtention de gains et de pertes monétaires, chez des adolescents à risque parental de dépression majeure (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont un des parents souffre de dépression majeure), des adolescents à risque parental de trouble bipolaire (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont un des parents souffre de trouble bipolaire) et des adolescents contrôles (i.e., jeunes asymptomatiques dont les deux parents sont en bonne santé mentale). Au niveau comportemental, les résultats ont révélé une meilleure performance chez les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure lorsqu’ils devaient éviter d’obtenir des pertes monétaires de magnitude variée (0,20$, 1$ ou 5$), ainsi qu’une meilleure performance chez les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire sur les essais impliquant d’éviter des pertes monétaires de magnitude nulle (0$). Au niveau neuronal, les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure démontraient une diminution de l’activation du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral lors de l’anticipation de potentielles pertes monétaires de magnitude variée, tandis que les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire démontraient une diminution de l’activation du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral lors de l’anticipation de potentielles pertes monétaires de magnitude nulle. De plus, les jeunes à risque de dépression majeure tendaient à démontrer une augmentation de l’activité du cortex orbitofrontal durant l’évitement réussi de pertes monétaires, tandis que les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire tendaient à démontrer une augmentation de l’activité du cortex orbitofrontal lors de l’obtention de pertes monétaires. Dans le deuxième article, l’intégrité structurelle des régions fronto-limbiques a été investiguée, au moyen de mesures du volume, de l’épaisseur corticale et de la superficie corticale. Les résultats ont mis en évidence, chez les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire, un volume plus élevé du cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral, par rapport aux jeunes à risque de dépression majeure et contrôles. De plus, les jeunes à risque de trouble bipolaire présentaient un volume plus élevé du cortex cingulaire postérieur, en comparaison aux jeunes à risque de dépression majeure. Enfin, une diminution de l’épaisseur corticale du cortex orbitofrontal et du gyrus frontal moyen a été observée chez les adolescents à risque de trouble bipolaire, en comparaison au groupe contrôle. L’ensemble de ces résultats démontre ainsi l’existence de particularités comportementales et d’altérations neuronales sur les plans fonctionnel et structurel, chez des jeunes à risque élevé de troubles de l’humeur, et ce, avant même l’émergence des premiers symptômes thymiques. Plus particulièrement, ces caractéristiques pourraient constituer des marqueurs du risque de développer un trouble de l’humeur. Par conséquent, ces marqueurs pourraient aider à mieux identifier les jeunes qui sont le plus à risque de développer un trouble de l’humeur, et ainsi permettre la mise en place précoce de stratégies préventives adaptées, afin d’éviter des trajectoires développementales psychopathologiques.

Intergenerational Transfer of Family Firm Control: Discount Expectations of Potential Successors

Building on institutional theory and family sociology literature we explore the logics that underlie the formation of transaction price expectations related to the intergenerational transfer of corporate ownership in private family firms. By probing a sample of 3'487 students with family business background from 20 countries we show that next generation family members expect to receive a 56.58% discount in comparison to some nonfamily buyer (i.e. the family discount) when taking over the parent's firm. We also show that the logic underlying the formation of family discount expectations is characterized by parental altruism, filial reciprocity, filial decency and parental inducement. These norms embrace both the family and market logics and accommodate the duties and demands of children and parents in determining a fair transfer price. These findings are important for institutional theory as well as for family business and entrepreneurial exit literatures.

A national case-control study of Ewing's sarcoma family of tumours in Australia

Limited population-based epidemiologic information is available on Ewing's sarcoma family of tumours (ESFT), a rare group of neoplasms. Several associations have been noted on a few studies but results were not consistent, except for exposure to farming among cases and their parents. Here we present the non-farm findings of a nationwide case-control study of ESFT in children and young adults in Australia. The analysis included 106 persons with confirmed ESFT and 344 population-based controls selected randomly via telephone. Information was collected by interview (84% face to face). We found a strong and significant association of ESFT with hernias, in particular hernia repaired in hospital (OR = 5.6, 95% Cl 1.3-6.4). Among other factors, there was a near doubling of risk for males, and male cases had their pubertal signs earlier (started shaving earlier) than male controls. There was also an increased risk of ESFT at higher levels of self-assessed exercise, but no other factor really stood out. For pregnancy-related factors, there was a tripling of risk for glandular fever, a doubling of risk for urinary tract infection and a near doubling of risk for X-rays during or just before pregnancy, but these estimates were not significant. In addition, there was a large number of inverse associations with medical conditions (specifically bone disorders), case exposure to medications, vaccinations and X-rays, with ultrasound during the pregnancy having the most certain effects. We conclude that, although the aetiology of ESFT remains obscure, overall there is strong evidence of an association with inguinal hernia; this can now be added to the farm-associated risk reported by others and us. The other associations reported here await replication and refinement in future studies. (C) 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.