Leptin receptor polymorphisms interact with polyunsaturated fatty acids to augment risk of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome in adults.

The leptin receptor (LEPR) is associated with insulin resistance, a key feature of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Gene-fatty acid interactions may affect MetS risk. The objective was to investigate the relationship among LEPR polymorphisms, insulin resistance, and MetS risk and whether plasma fatty acids, a biomarker of dietary fatty acids, modulate this. LEPR polymorphisms (rs10493380, rs1137100, rs1137101, rs12067936, rs1805096, rs2025805, rs3790419, rs3790433, rs6673324, and rs8179183), biochemical measurements, and plasma fatty acid profiles were determined in the LIPGENE-SU.VI.MAX study of MetS cases and matched controls (n = 1754). LEPR rs3790433 GG homozygotes had increased MetS risk compared with the minor A allele carriers [odds ratio (OR) = 1.65; 95% CI: 1.05–2.57; P = 0.028], which may be accounted for by their increased risk of elevated insulin concentrations (OR 2.40; 95% CI: 1.28–4.50; P = 0.006) and insulin resistance (OR = 2.15; 95% CI: 1.18–3.90; P = 0.012). Low (less than median) plasma (n-3) and high (n-6) PUFA status exacerbated the genetic risk conferred by GG homozygosity to hyperinsulinemia (OR 2.92–2.94) and insulin resistance (OR 3.40–3.47). Interestingly, these associations were abolished against a high (n-3) or low (n-6) PUFA background. Importantly, we replicated some of these findings in an independent cohort. Homozygosity for the LEPR rs3790433 G allele was associated with insulin resistance, which may predispose to increased MetS risk. Novel gene-nutrient interactions between LEPR rs3790433 and PUFA suggest that these genetic influences were more evident in individuals with low plasma (n-3) or high plasma (n-6) PUFA.

The effect of feeding modified soyabean oil enriched with C18 : 4 n-3 to broilers on the deposition of n-3 fatty acids in chicken meat

Supplementing broiler diets with conventional vegetable oils has little effect on the long-chain n-3 PUFA (LC n-3 PUFA) content of the meat. The present study investigated the effect on fatty acid composition and sensory characteristics of chicken meat when broilers were fed oil extracted from soyabeans (SDASOY) that had been genetically engineered to produce C18 : 4n-3 (stearidonic acid (SDA), 240 mg/g oil). Three diets were fed to 120 birds (eight replicate pens of five birds) from 15 d to slaughter (41–50 d). Diets were identical apart from the oil added to them (45 and 50 g/kg as fed in the grower and finisher phases, respectively), which was either SDASOY, near-isogenic soya (CON) or fish oil (FISH). The LC n-3 PUFA content of the meat increased in the order CON, SDASOY and FISH. In breast meat with skin, the SDA concentration was 522, 13 and 37 (sem 14·4) mg/100 g meat for SDASOY, CON and FISH, respectively. Equivalent values for C20 : 5n-3 (EPA) were 53, 13 and 140 (sem 8·4); for C22 : 5n-3 (docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)) 65, 15 and 101 (sem 3·5); for C22 : 6n-3 (DHA) 19, 9 and 181 (sem 4·4). Leg meat (with skin) values for SDA were 861, 23 and 68 (sem 30·1); for EPA 87, 9 and 258 (sem 7·5); for DPA 95, 20 and 165 (sem 5·0); for DHA 29, 10 and 278 (sem 8·4). Aroma, taste and aftertaste of freshly cooked breast meat were not affected. Fishy aromas, tastes and aftertastes were associated with LC n-3 PUFA content of the meat, being most noticeable in the FISH leg meat (both freshly cooked and reheated) and in the reheated SDASOY leg meat.

Frying of potato chips in a blend of canola oil and palm olein: changes in levels of individual fatty acids and tocols

The changes occurring in the levels of nutritionally relevant oil components were assessed during repeated frying of potato chips in a blend of palm olein and canola oil (1:1 w/w). The blend suffered minimal reductions in omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. There was no significant difference between the fatty acid composition of the oil extracted from the product and that of the frying medium, in all three cases. The blend also contained a significant amount of tocols which add a nutritional value to the oil. The concentration of the tocols was satisfactorily retained over the period of oil usage, in contrast to the significant loses observed in the case of the individual oils. The blend also performed well when assessed by changes in total polar compounds, free fatty acids, p-anisidine value. When fried in used oil, the product oil content increased progressively with oil usage time. This study shows that blended frying oils can combine good stability and nutritional quality

Quality of polyunsaturated fatty acids in Nile tilapias (Oreochromis niloticus) fed with vitamin E supplementation

Freshwater fish are an important source of protein, but they also contain other highly nutritive components such as fats. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential for normal growth, development and reproduction of vertebrates. The antioxidant role of vitamin E in cell membranes prevents fatty acid and cholesterol oxidation, thereby promoting PUFA and subcellular particle stabilization. The effects of vitamin E supplementation on the quality of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) carcass were investigated. The experiments were carried out in an experimental laboratory over 106 d. After sex reversal, 400 early juvenile O. niloticus were tested in a completely randomized experiment with 5 treatments (4 repetitions each), consisting of vitamin E monophosphate supplementation at 0, 50, 100, 150 or 200 mg/kg of a base diet. Treatment diets contained equal amounts of protein and energy. Tilapias supplemented with vitamin E contained arachidonic acid (20:4 omega-6; AA) which participates in inflammatory response. Nile tilapia carcasses that received vitamin E at 100 and 150 mg/kg diet had improved carcass quality by increasing the PUFA:SFA ratio and had the highest levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids from the omega-3 (linolenic acid; 18:3 omega-3) and omega-6 (linoleic acid; 18:2 omega-6) series. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Association of macular pigment density with plasma ω-3 fatty acids: the PIMAVOSA study

To assess the correlation between macular pigment optical density and plasma levels of lutein, zeaxanthin, and fatty acids, especially omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).

Milk fatty acids as possible biomarkers to early diagnose elevated concentrations of blood plasma nonesterified fatty acids in dairy cows

Most cows encounter a state of negative energy balance during the periparturient period, which may lead to metabolic disorders and impaired fertility. The aim of this study was to assess the potential of milk fatty acids as diagnostic tools of detrimental levels of blood plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), defined as NEFA concentrations beyond 0.6 mmol/L, in a data set of 92 early lactating cows fed a glucogenic or lipogenic diet and subjected to 0-, 30-, or 60-d dry period before parturition. Milk was collected in wk 2, 3, 4, and 8 (n = 368) and blood was sampled weekly from wk 2 to 8 after parturition. Milk was analyzed for milk fatty acids and blood plasma for NEFA. Data were classified as "at risk of detrimental blood plasma NEFA" (NEFA ≥ 0.6 mmol/L) and "not at risk of detrimental blood plasma NEFA" (NEFA <0.6 mmol/L). Concentrations of 45 milk fatty acids and milk fat C18:1 cis-9-to-C15:0 ratio were subjected to a discriminant analysis. Milk fat C18:1 cis-9 revealed the most discriminating variable to identify detrimental blood plasma NEFA. A false positive rate of 10% allowed us to diagnose 46% of the detrimental blood plasma NEFA cases based on a milk fat C18:1 cis-9 concentration of at least 230 g/kg of milk fatty acids. Additionally, it was assessed whether the milk fat C18:1 cis-9 concentrations of wk 2 could be used as an early warning for detrimental blood plasma NEFA risk during the first 8 wk in lactation. Cows with at least 240 g/kg of C18:1 cis-9 in milk fat had about 50% chance to encounter blood plasma NEFA values of 0.6 mmol/L or more during the first 8 wk of lactation, with a false positive rate of 11.4%. Profit simulations were based on costs for cows suffering from detrimental blood plasma NEFA, and costs for preventive treatment based on daily dosing of propylene glycol for 3 wk. Given the relatively low incidence rate (8% of all observations), continuous monitoring of milk fatty acids during the first 8 wk of lactation to diagnose detrimental blood plasma NEFA does not seem cost effective. On the contrary, milk fat C18:1 cis-9 of the second lactation week could be an early warning of cows at risk of detrimental blood NEFA. In this case, selective treatment may be cost effective.

Carbon isotopic compositions and concentrations of major fatty acids in the Beggiatoa covered sediment core at the crest of southern Hydrate Ridge

Membrane fatty acids were extracted from a sediment core above marine gas hydrates at Hydrate Ridge, NE Pacific. Anaerobic sediments from this environment are characterized by high sulfate reduction rates driven by the anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM). The assimilation of methane carbon into bacterial biomass is indicated by carbon isotope values of specific fatty acids as low as -103 per mill. Specific fatty acids released from bacterial membranes include C 16:1 omega 5c , C 17:1 omega 6c , and cyC 17:0 omega 5,6 , all of which have been fully characterized by mass spectrometry. These unusual fatty acids continuously display the lowest d13 C values in all sediment horizons and two of them are detected in high abundance (i.e., C 16:1 omega 5c and cyC 17:0 omega 5,6 ). Combined with microscopic examination by fluorescence in situ hybridization specifically targeting sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) of the Desulfosarcina/Desulfococcus group, which are present in the aggregates of AOM consortia in extremely high numbers, these specific fatty acids appear to provide a phenotypic fingerprint indicative for SRB of this group. Correlating depth profiles of specific fatty acid content and aggregate number in combination with pore water sulfate data provide further evidence of this finding. Using mass balance calculations we present a cell-specific fatty acid pattern most likely displaying a very close resemblance to the still uncultured Desulfosarcina/Desulfococcus species involved in AOM.

Elemental contents, non-carbonate, fatty acids and alcohols analysis from different Holes of IODP Expedition 310

During IODP Expedition 310 (Tahiti Sea Level), drowned Pleistocene-Holocene barrier-reef terraces were drilled on the slope of the volcanic island. The deglacial reef succession typically consists of a coral framework encrusted by coralline algae and later by microbialites; the latter make up < 80% of the rock volume. Lipid biomarkers were analyzed in order to identify organisms involved in reef-microbialite formation at Tahiti, as the genesis of deglacial microbialites and the conditions favoring their formation are not fully understood. Sterols plus saturated and monounsaturated short-chain fatty acids predominantly derived from both marine primary producers (algae) and bacteria comprise 44 wt% of all lipids on average, whereas long-chain fatty acids and long-chain alcohols derived from higher land plants represent an average of only 24 wt%. Bacterially derived mono-O-alkyl glycerol ethers (MAGEs) and branched fatty acids (10-Me-C16:0; iso- and anteiso-C15:0 and -C17:0) are exceptionally abundant in the microbial carbonates (average, 19 wt%) and represent biomarkers of intermediate-to-high specificity for sulfate-reducing bacteria. Both are relatively enriched in 13C compared to eukaryotic lipids. No lipid biomarkers indicative of cyanobacteria were preserved in the microbialites. The abundances of Al, Si, Fe, Mn, Ba, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite reflect strong terrigenous influx with Tahitian basalt as the major source. Chemical weathering of the basalt most likely elevated nutrient levels in the reefs and this fertilization led to an increase in primary production and organic matter formation, boosting heterotrophic sulfate reduction. Based on the observed biomarker patterns, sulfate-reducing bacteria were apparently involved in the formation of microbialites in the coral reefs off Tahiti during the last deglaciation.

Identification and characterization of an enzyme involved in the elongation of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

The enzymes that are involved in the elongation of fatty acids differ in terms of the substrates on which they act. To date, the enzymes specifically involved in the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids have not yet been identified. In an attempt to identify a gene(s) encoding an enzyme(s) specific for the elongation of γ-linolenic acid (GLA) (18:3n-6), a cDNA expression library was made from the fungus Mortierella alpina. The cDNA library constructed in a yeast expression vector was screened by measuring the expressed elongase activity [conversion of GLA to dihomo-GLA (20:3n-6)] from an individual yeast clone. In this report, we demonstrate the isolation of a cDNA (GLELO) whose encoded protein (GLELOp) was involved in the conversion of GLA to dihomo-GLA in an efficient manner (60% conversion). This cDNA contains a 957-nucleotide ORF that encodes a protein of 318 amino acids. Substrate specificity analysis revealed that this fungal enzyme acted also on stearidonic acid (18:4n-3). This report identifies and characterizes an elongase subunit that acts specifically on the two Δ6-desaturation products, 18:3n-6 and 18:4n-3. When this GLELO cDNA was coexpressed with M. alpina Δ5-desaturase cDNA in yeast, it resulted in the conversion of GLA to arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) as well as the conversion of stearidonic acid to eicosopentaenoic acid (20:5n-3). Thus, this GLELO gene may play an critical role in the bio-production of both n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Expression of a delta 9 14:0-acyl carrier protein fatty acid desaturase gene is necessary for the production of omega 5 anacardic acids found in pest-resistant geranium (Pelargonium xhortorum).

Anacardic acids, a class of secondary compounds derived from fatty acids, are found in a variety of dicotyledonous families. Pest resistance (e.g., spider mites and aphids) in Pelargonium xhortorum (geranium) is associated with high levels (approximately 81%) of unsaturated 22:1 omega 5 and 24:1 omega 5 anacardic acids in the glandular trichome exudate. A single dominant locus controls the production of these omega 5 anacardic acids, which arise from novel 16:1 delta 11 and 18:1 delta 13 fatty acids. We describe the isolation and characterization of a cDNA encoding a unique delta 9 14:0-acyl carrier protein fatty acid desaturase. Several lines of evidence indicated that expression of this desaturase leads to the production of the omega 5 anacardic acids involved in pest resistance. First, its expression was found in pest-resistant, but not suspectible, plants and its expression followed the production of the omega 5 anacardic acids in segregating populations. Second, its expression and the occurrence of the novel 16:1 delta 11 and 18:1 delta 13 fatty acids and the omega 5 anacardic acids were specific to tall glandular trichomes. Third, assays of the recombinant protein demonstrated that this desaturase produced the 14:1 delta 9 fatty acid precursor to the novel 16:1 delta 11 and 18:1 delta 13 fatty acids. Based on our genetic and biochemical studies, we conclude that expression of this delta 9 14:0-ACP desaturase gene is required for the production of omega 5 anacardic acids that have been shown to be necessary for pest resistance in geranium.

Electrocatalytically driven omega-hydroxylation of fatty acids using cytochrome P450 4A1.

The cyclic enzymatic function of a cytochrome P450, as it catalyzes the oxygen-dependent metabolism of many organic chemicals, requires the delivery of two electrons to the hemeprotein. In general these electrons are transferred from NADPH to the P450 via an FMN- and FAD-containing flavoprotein (NADPH-P450 reductase). The present paper shows that NADPH can be replaced by an electrochemically generated reductant [cobalt(II) sepulchrate trichloride] for the electrocatalytically driven omega-hydroxylation of lauric acid. Results are presented illustrating the use of purified recombinant proteins containing P450 4A1, such as the fusion protein (rFP450 [mRat4A1/mRatOR]L1) or a system reconstituted with purified P450 4A1 plus purified NADPH-P450 reductase. Rates of formation of 12-hydroxydodecanoic acid by the electrochemical method are comparable to those obtained using NADPH as electron donor. These results suggest the practicality of developing electrocatalytically dependent bioreactors containing different P450s as catalysts for the large-scale synthesis of stereo- and regio-selective hydroxylation products of many chemicals.

Efeito dos ácidos graxos ômega-3, ômega-6 e ômega-9 sobre o risco cardiovascular de indivíduos adultos: estudo clínico de prevenção primária.

INTRODUÇÃO: As doenças cardiovasculares (DCV) são a principal causa de morte no mundo, sendo muitos dos fatores de risco passíveis de prevenção e controle. Embora as DCV sejam complexas em sua etiologia e desenvolvimento, a concentração elevada de LDL-c e baixa de HDL-c constituem os fatores de risco modificáveis mais monitorados na prática clínica, embora não sejam capazes de explicar todos os eventos cardiovasculares. Portanto, investigar como intervenções farmacológicas e nutricionais podem modular parâmetros oxidativos, físicos e estruturais das lipoproteínas pode fornecer estimativa adicional ao risco cardiovascular. Dentre os diversos nutrientes e compostos bioativos relacionados às DCV, os lipídeos representam os mais investigados e descritos na literatura. Nesse contexto, os ácidos graxos insaturados (ômega-3, ômega-6 e ômega-9) têm sido foco de inúmeros estudos. OBJETIVOS: Avaliar o efeito da suplementação com ômega-3, ômega-6 e ômega-9 sobre os parâmetros cardiometabólicos em indivíduos adultos com múltiplos fatores de risco e sem evento cardiovascular prévio. MATERIAL E MÉTODOS: Estudo clínico, randomizado, duplo-cego, baseado em intervenção nutricional (3,0 g/dia de ácidos graxos) sob a fórmula de cápsulas contendo: ômega-3 (37 por cento de EPA e 23 por cento de DHA) ou ômega-6 (65 por cento de ácido linoleico) ou ômega-9 (72 por cento de ácido oleico). A amostra foi composta por indivíduos de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 30 e 74 anos, apresentando pelo menos um dos seguintes fatores de risco: Dislipidemia, Diabetes Mellitus, Obesidade e Hipertensão Arterial Sistêmica. Após aprovação do Comitê de Ética, os indivíduos foram distribuídos nos três grupos de intervenção. No momento basal, os indivíduos foram caracterizados quanto aos aspectos demográficos (sexo, idade e etnia) e clínicos (medicamentos, doenças atuais e antecedentes familiares). Nos momentos basal e após 8 semanas de intervenção, amostras de sangue foram coletadas após 12h de jejum. A partir do plasma foram analisados: perfil lipídico (CT, LDL-c, HDL-c, TG), apolipoproteínas AI e B, ácidos graxos não esterificados, atividade da PON1, LDL(-) e auto-anticorpos, ácidos graxos, glicose, insulina, tamanho e distribuição percentual da LDL (7 subfrações e fenótipo A e não-A) e HDL (10 subfrações). O efeito do tempo, da intervenção e associações entre os ácidos graxos e aspectos qualitativos das lipoproteínas foram testados (SPSS versão 20.0, p <0,05). RESULTADOS: Uma primeira análise dos resultados baseada em um corte transversal demonstrou, por meio da análise de tendência linear ajustada pelo nível de risco cardiovascular, que o maior tercil plasmático de DHA se associou positivamente com HDL-c, HDLGRANDE e tamanho de LDL e negativamente com HDLPEQUENA e TG. Observou-se também que o maior tercil plasmático de ácido linoleico se associou positivamente com HDLGRANDE e tamanho de LDL e negativamente com HDLPEQUENA e TG. Esse perfil de associação não foi observado quando foram avaliados os parâmetros dietéticos. Avaliando uma subamostra que incluiu indivíduos tabagistas suplementados com ômega-6 e ômega-3, observou-se que ômega-3 modificou positivamente o perfil lipídico e as subfrações da HDL. Nos modelos de regressão linear ajustados pela idade, sexo e hipertensão, o DHA plasmático apresentou associações negativas com a HDLPEQUENA. Quando se avaliou exclusivamente o efeito do ômega-3 em indivíduos tabagistas e não tabagistas, observou-se que fumantes, do sexo masculino, acima de 60 anos de idade, apresentando baixo percentual plasmático de EPA e DHA (<8 por cento ), com excesso de peso e gordura corporal elevada, apresentam maior probabilidade de ter um perfil de subfrações de HDL mais aterogênicas. Tendo por base os resultados acima, foi comparado o efeito do ômega-3, ômega-6 e ômega-9 sobre os parâmetros cardiometabólicos. O ômega-3 promoveu redução no TG, aumento do percentual de HDLGRANDE e redução de HDLPEQUENA. O papel cardioprotetor do ômega-3 foi reforçado pelo aumento na incorporação de EPA e DHA, no qual indivíduos com EPA e DHA acima de 8 por cento apresentaram maior probabilidade de ter HDLGRANDE e menor de ter HDLPEQUENA. Em adição, observou-se também que o elevado percentual plasmático de ômega-9 se associou com partículas de LDL menos aterogênicas (fenótipo A). CONCLUSÃO: Ácidos graxos plasmáticos, mas não dietéticos, se correlacionam com parâmetros cardiometabólicos. A suplementação com ômega-3, presente no óleo de peixe, promoveu redução no TG e melhoria nos parâmetros qualitativos da HDL (mais HDLGRANDE e menos HDLPEQUENA). Os benefícios do ômega-3 foram particularmente relevantes nos indivíduos tabagistas e naqueles com menor conteúdo basal de EPA e DHA plasmáticos. Observou-se ainda que o ômega-9 plasmático, presente no azeite de oliva, exerceu impacto positivo no tamanho e subfrações da LDL.

Quality of polyunsaturated fatty acids in Nile tilapias (Oreochromis niloticus) fed with vitamin E supplementation

Freshwater fish are an important source of protein, but they also contain other highly nutritive components such as fats. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential for normal growth, development and reproduction of vertebrates. The antioxidant role of vitamin E in cell membranes prevents fatty acid and cholesterol oxidation, thereby promoting PUFA and subcellular particle stabilization. The effects of vitamin E supplementation on the quality of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) carcass were investigated. The experiments were carried out in an experimental laboratory over 106 d. After sex reversal, 400 early juvenile O. niloticus were tested in a completely randomized experiment with 5 treatments (4 repetitions each), consisting of vitamin E monophosphate supplementation at 0, 50, 100, 150 or 200 mg/kg of a base diet. Treatment diets contained equal amounts of protein and energy. Tilapias supplemented with vitamin E contained arachidonic acid (20:4 omega-6; AA) which participates in inflammatory response. Nile tilapia carcasses that received vitamin E at 100 and 150 mg/kg diet had improved carcass quality by increasing the PUFA:SFA ratio and had the highest levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids from the omega-3 (linolenic acid; 18:3 omega-3) and omega-6 (linoleic acid; 18:2 omega-6) series. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effect of dietary linolenic acid/linoleic acid ratio on growth performance, hepatic fatty acid profiles and intermediary metabolism of juvenile yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of dietary linolenic acid (LNA)linoleic acid (LA) ratio on growth performance, hepatic fatty acid profile and intermediary metabolism of juvenile yellow catfish Pelteobagrus fulvidraco. Six isonitrogenous and isolipidic diets were formulated to contain incremental levels of LNA from 0 to 5% at the expense of corn oil (rich in LA), resulting in six dietary treatments with LNA to LA ratios ranging from 0.35 to 14.64. The experiment continued for 7 weeks. Best growth and feed intake were obtained in the fish fed the diets containing the LNA/LA ratios of 1.17 and 2.12 (P<0.05). In contrast, feed conversion ratio was the lowest for fish fed the diets containing the LNA/LA ratios of 1.17 and 2.12 (P<0.05). Dietary LNA to LA ratios significantly influenced viscerosomatic index and hepatosomatic index (P<0.05), but not condition factor (P>0.05). Body composition was also significantly influenced by dietary LNA to LA ratios (P<0.05). Generally, liver FA compositions reflected dietary FA profiles. Declining LA and increasing LNA contents in liver were observed with the increasing dietary LNA/LA ratios (P<0.05). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increased with the increasing LNA to LA ratios, suggesting that yellow catfish could elongate and desaturate C18 polyunsaturated fatty acids into highly unsaturated fatty acids. As a consequence, the n-6 fatty acids (FA) declined, and total n-3 FA and n-3/n-6 ratios increased with the dietary ratios of LNA/LA (P<0.05). Dietary LNA to LA ratios significantly influenced several enzymatic activities involved in liver intermediary metabolism (P<0.05), such as lipoprotein lipase, hepatic lipase, pyruvate kinase, succinate dehydrogenase, malic dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase, suggesting that dietary LNA/LA ratios had significant effects on nutrient metabolism in the liver. To our knowledge this is the first demonstration of the effects of dietary LNA to LA ratios on the enzymatic activities of liver in fish, which provides information on diet quality and utilization, and can also be used as an indicator of the nutritional status of this fish. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.