Food availability affects the maternal transfer of androgens and antibodies into eggs of a colonial seabird.

Mothers can improve the quality of their offspring by increasing the level of certain components in their eggs. To examine whether or not mothers increase deposition of such components in eggs as a function of food availability, we food-supplemented black-legged kittiwake females (Rissa tridactyla) before and during egg laying and compared deposition of androgens and antibodies into eggs of first and experimentally induced replacement clutches. Food-supplemented females transferred lower amounts of androgens and antibodies into eggs of induced replacement clutches than did non-food-supplemented mothers, whereas first clutches presented no differences between treatments. Our results suggest that when females are in lower condition, they transfer more androgens and antibodies into eggs to facilitate chick development despite potential long-term costs for juveniles. Females in prime condition may avoid these potential long-term costs because they can provide their chicks with more and higher quality resources.

Effect of a high fat maternal diet on body composition and bone development in male offspring

Direct high fat (HF) feeding has adverse effects on body composition and bone development in rodents. However, it is unclear whether maternal HF feeding has similar effects in male rat offspring. The objectives of this thesis were to determine if maternal HF feeding altered body composition, plasma hormones, bone development, and bone fatty acid composition in male offspring at weaning and 3 months of age. Maternal HF feeding increased bone mass and altered femur fatty acid composition at weaning, without differences in fat mass, lean mass, plasma hormones, or bone mass (femur or lumbar vertebrae). However, early differences did not persist at 3 months of age or contribute to lower bone strength – following consumption of a control diet post-weaning. These findings suggest that maternal HF feeding can alter body composition and bone development in weanling male offspring, without long-lasting effects if a healthy control diet is consumed post-weaning.

Maternal nutrition and the risk of preeclampsia

La prééclampsie est responsable du quart des mortalités maternelles et est la deuxième cause de décès maternels associés à la grossesse au Canada et dans le monde. L’identification d’une stratégie efficace pour la prévention de la prééclampsie est une priorité et un défi primordial dans les milieux de recherche en obstétrique. Le rôle des éléments nutritifs dans le développement de la prééclampsie a récemment reçu davantage d’attention. Plusieurs études cliniques et épidémiologiques ont été menées pour déterminer les facteurs de risque alimentaires potentiels et examiner les effets d’une supplémentation nutritive dans le développement de troubles hypertensifs de la grossesse. Pour déterminer les effets de suppléments antioxydants pris pendant la grossesse sur le risque d’hypertension gestationnelle (HG) et de prééclampsie, un essai multicentrique contrôlé à double insu a été mené au Canada et au Mexique (An International Trial of Antioxidants in the Prevention of Preeclampsia – INTAPP). Les femmes, stratifiées par risque, étaient assignées au traitement expérimental quotidien (1 gramme de vitamine C et 400 UI de vitamine E) ou au placebo. En raison des effets secondaires potentiels, le recrutement pour l’essai a été arrêté avant que l’échantillon complet ait été constitué. Au total, 2640 femmes éligibles ont accepté d’être recrutées, dont 2363 (89.5%) furent incluses dans les analyses finales. Nous n’avons retrouvé aucune évidence qu’une supplémentation prénatale de vitamines C et E réduisait le risque d’HG et de ses effets secondaires (RR 0,99; IC 95% 0,78-1,26), HG (RR 1,04; IC 95% 0,89-1,22) et prééclampsie (RR 1,04; IC 95% 0,75-1,44). Toutefois, une analyse secondaire a révélé que les vitamines C et E augmentaient le risque de « perte fœtale ou de décès périnatal » (une mesure non spécifiée au préalable) ainsi qu’une rupture prématurée des membranes avant terme. Nous avons mené une étude de cohorte prospective chez les femmes enceintes recrutées dans l’INTAPP afin d’évaluer les relations entre le régime alimentaire maternel en début et fin de grossesse et le risque de prééclampsie et d’HG. Un questionnaire de fréquence alimentaire validé était administré deux fois pendant la grossesse (12-18 semaines, 32-34 semaines). Les analyses furent faites séparément pour les 1537 Canadiennes et les 799 Mexicaines en raison de l’hétérogénéité des régimes alimentaires des deux pays. Parmi les canadiennes, après ajustement pour l’indice de masse corporelle (IMC) précédant la grossesse, le groupe de traitement, le niveau de risque (élevé versus faible) et les autres facteurs de base, nous avons constaté une association significative entre un faible apport alimentaire (quartile inférieur) de potassium (OR 1,79; IC 95% 1,03-3,11) et de zinc (OR 1,90; IC 95% 1,07-3,39) et un risque augmenté de prééclampsie. Toujours chez les Canadiennes, le quartile inférieur de consommation d’acides gras polyinsaturés était associé à un risque augmenté d’HG (OR 1,49; IC 95% 1,09-2,02). Aucun des nutriments analysés n’affectait les risques d’HG ou de prééclampsie chez les Mexicaines. Nous avons entrepris une étude cas-témoins à l’intérieur de la cohorte de l’INTAPP pour établir le lien entre la concentration sérique de vitamines antioxydantes et le risque de prééclampsie. Un total de 115 cas de prééclampsie et 229 témoins ont été inclus. Les concentrations de vitamine E ont été mesurées de façon longitudinale à 12-18 semaines (avant la prise de suppléments), à 24-26 semaines et à 32-34 semaines de grossesse en utilisant la chromatographie liquide de haute performance. Lorsqu’examinée en tant que variable continue et après ajustement multivarié, une concentration de base élevée de gamma-tocophérol était associée à un risque augmenté de prééclampsie (quartile supérieur vs quartile inférieur à 24-26 semaines : OR 2,99, IC 95% 1,13-7,89; à 32-34 semaines : OR 4,37, IC 95% 1,35-14,15). Nous n’avons pas trouvé de lien entre les concentrations de alpha-tocophérol et le risque de prééclampsie. En résumé, nous n’avons pas trouvé d’effets de la supplémentation en vitamines C et E sur le risque de prééclampsie dans l’INTAPP. Nous avons toutefois trouvé, dans la cohorte canadienne, qu’une faible prise de potassium et de zinc, tel qu’estimée par les questionnaires de fréquence alimentaire, était associée à un risque augmenté de prééclampsie. Aussi, une plus grande concentration sérique de gamma-tocophérol pendant la grossesse était associée à un risque augmenté de prééclampsie.

Reproducibility of a short semi-quantitative food group questionnaire and its performance in estimating nutrient intake compared with a 7-day diet diary in the Million Women Study

Objectives: To assess the short- and long-term reproducibility of a short food group questionnaire, and to compare its performance for estimating nutrient intakes in comparison with a 7-day diet diary. Design: Participants for the reproducibility study completed the food group questionnaire at two time points, up to 2 years apart. Participants for the performance study completed both the food group questionnaire and a 7-day diet diary a few months apart. Reproducibility was assessed by kappa statistics and percentage change between the two questionnaires; performance was assessed by kappa statistics, rank correlations and percentages of participants classified into the same and opposite thirds of intake. Setting: A random sample of participants in the Million Women Study, a population-based prospective study in the UK. Subjects: In total, 12 221 women aged 50-64 years. Results: in the reproducibility study, 75% of the food group items showed at least moderate agreement for all four time-point comparisons. Items showing fair agreement or worse tended to be those where few respondents reported eating them more than once a week, those consumed in small amounts and those relating to types of fat consumed. Compared with the diet diary, the food group questionnaire showed consistently reasonable performance for the nutrients carbohydrate, saturated fat, cholesterol, total sugars, alcohol, fibre, calcium, riboflavin, folate and vitamin C. Conclusions: The short food group questionnaire used in this study has been shown to be reproducible over time and to perform reasonably well for the assessment of a number of dietary nutrients.

Zinc metabolism in pregnant and lactating rats and the effect of varying iron: Zn in the diet

Pregnant rats were given control (46 mg iron/kg, 61 mg zinc/kg), low-Zn (6.9 mg Zn/kg) or low-Zn plus Fe (168 mg Fe/kg) diets from day 1 of pregnancy. The animals were allowed to give birth and parturition times recorded. Exactly 24 h after the end of parturition the pups were killed and analysed for water, fat, protein, Fe and Zn contents and the mothers' haemoglobin (Hb) and packed cell volume (PCV) were measured. There were no differences in weight gain or food intakes throughout pregnancy. Parturition times were similar (mean time 123 (SE 15) min) and there were no differences in the number of pups born. Protein, water and fat contents of the pups were similar but the low-Zn Fe-supplemented group had higher pup Fe than the low-Zn unsupplemented group, and the control group had higher pup Zn than both the low-Zn groups. The low-Zn groups had a greater incidence of haemorrhaged or deformed pups, or both, than the controls. Pregnant rats were given diets of adequate Zn level (40 mg/kg) but with varying Fe:Zn (0.8, 1.7, 2.9, 3.7). Zn retention from the diet was measured using 65Zn as an extrinsic label on days 3, 10 and 17 of pregnancy with a whole-body gamma-counter. A group of non-pregnant rats was also included as controls. The 65Zn content of mothers and pups was measured 24-48 h after birth and at 14, 21 and 24 d of age. In all groups Zn retention was highest from the first meal, fell in the second meal and then rose in the third meal of the pregnant but not the non-pregnant rats. There were no differences between the groups given diets of varying Fe:Zn level. Approximately 25% of the 65Zn was transferred from the mothers to the pups by the time they were 48 h old, and a further 17% during the first 14 d of lactation. The pup 65Zn content did not significantly increase after the first 20 d of lactation but the maternal 65Zn level continued to fall gradually.

Effect of maternal protein restriction during pregnancy and postweaning high-fat feeding of diet-induced thermogenesis in adult mouse offspring

Purpose Prenatal undernutrition followed by postweaning feeding of a high-fat diet results in obesity in the adult offspring. In this study, we investigated whether diet-induced thermogenesis is altered as a result of such nutritional mismatch. Methods Female MF-1 mice were fed a normal protein (NP, 18 % casein) or a protein-restricted (PR, 9 % casein) diet throughout pregnancy and lactation. After weaning, male offspring of both groups were fed either a high-fat diet (HF; 45 % kcal fat) or standard chow (C, 7 % kcal fat) to generate the NP/C, NP/HF, PR/C and PR/HF adult offspring groups (n = 7–11 per group). Results PR/C and NP/C offspring have similar body weights at 30 weeks of age. Postweaning HF feeding resulted in significantly heavier NP/HF offspring (P < 0.01), but not in PR/HF offspring, compared with their chow-fed counterparts. However, the PR/HF offspring exhibited greater adiposity (P < 0.01) v the NP/HF group. The NP/HF offspring had increased energy expenditure and increased mRNA expression of uncoupling protein-1 and β-3 adrenergic receptor in the interscapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) compared with the NP/C mice (both at P < 0.01). No such differences in energy expenditure and iBAT gene expression were observed between the PR/HF and PR/C offspring. Conclusions These data suggest that a mismatch between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation, and the postweaning diet of the offspring, can attenuate diet-induced thermogenesis in the iBAT, resulting in the development of obesity in adulthood.

Diet and food selection by small mammals in an old-growth Atlantic forest of south-eastern Brazil

Here we describe the stomach contents of nine small mammal species (seven rodents and two didelphid marsupials) co-occurring in an old-growth Atlantic forest area. For four terrestrial rodents, we also compared the importance of arthropods in the diet and the selection of arthropod groups by comparing consumption with availability. Small mammals and arthropods were sampled in a 36-ha grid containing 25 sampling stations spaced every 150 m, and 47 stomach contents were analysed. While plant matter was the predominant item in the stomach contents of two rodents (Oligoryzomys nigripes and Rhipidomys mastacalis), four species presented arthropods as the main food item (the rodents Brucepattersonius soricinus and Oxymycterus dasytrichus, and the marsupials Monodelphis n. sp. and Marmosops incanus) and three consumed more plant matter than arthropods, but had significant amounts of both items (the rodents Delomys sublineatus, Euryoryzomys russatus and Thaptomys nigrita). Our results suggest that differences in diet, coupled with differences in habit and microhabitat preferences, are important factors allowing resource partition among species of the diverse group of co-occurring terrestrial small mammals in Atlantic forest areas. Moreover, arthropods were not preyed opportunistically by any of the four terrestrial rodents, since consumption was not proportional to availability. Rather, selection or rejection of arthropod groups seems to be determined by aspects other than availability, such as nutritional value, easiness of capture and handling or palatability.

Can physical exercise during gestation attenuate the effects of a maternal perinatal low-protein diet on oxygen consumption in rats?

A protocol of physical exercise, based on maximal oxygen uptake ((V) over dot(O2max)), for female rats before and during pregnancy was developed to evaluate the impact of a low-protein diet on oxygen consumption during gestation and growth rate of the offspring. Virgin female Wistar rats were divided into four groups as follows: untrained (NT, n = 5); trained (T, n = 5); untrained with low-protein diet (NT+LP, n = 5); and trained with low-protein diet (T+LP, n = 5). Trained rats were submitted to a protocol of moderate physical training on a treadmill over a period of 4 weeks (5 days week(-1) and 60 min day(-1), at 65% of (V) over dot(O2max)). At confirmation of pregnancy, the intensity and duration of the exercise was reduced. Low-protein groups received an 8% casein diet, and their peers received a 17% casein diet. The birthweight and growth rate of the pups up to the 90th day were recorded. Oxygen consumption ((V) over dot(O2)), CO(2) production and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were determined using an indirect open-circuit calorimeter. Exercise training increased. (V) over dot(O2max) by about 20% when compared with the initial values (45.6 +/- 1.0 ml kg(-1) min(-1)). During gestation, all groups showed a progressive reduction in the resting (V) over dot(O2) values. Dams in the NT+LP group showed lower values of resting (V) over dot(O2) than those in the NT group. The growth rate of pups from low-protein-fed mothers was around 50% lower than that of their respective controls. The T group showed an increase in body weight from the 60th day onwards, while the NT+LP group presented a reduced body weight from weaning onwards. In conclusion, physical training attenuated the impact of the low- protein

Family food environment and dietary behaviors likely to promote fatness in 5-6 year-old children

Background: The family food environment (FFE) is likely to exert important influences on young children's eating. Examination of multiple aspects of the FFE may provide useful insights regarding which of these might most effectively be targeted to prevent childhood obesity.

Objective: To assess the associations between the FFE and a range of obesity-promoting dietary behaviors in 5–6-year-old children.

Design: Cross-sectional study.

Subjects: Five hundred and sixty families sampled from three socio-economically distinct areas.

Measurements: Predictors included parental perceptions of their child's diet, food availability, child feeding practices, parental modeling of eating and food preparation and television (TV) exposure. Dietary outcomes included energy intake, vegetable, sweet snack, savory snack and high-energy (non-dairy) fluid consumption.

Results: Multiple linear regression analyses, adjusted for all other predictor variables and maternal education, showed that several aspects of the FFE were associated with dietary outcomes likely to promote fatness in 5–6-year-old children. For example, increased TV viewing time was associated with increased index of energy intake, increased sweet snack and high-energy drink consumption, and deceased vegetable intake. In addition, parent's increased confidence in the adequacy of their child's diet was associated with increased consumption of sweet and savory snacks and decreased vegetable consumption. 

Conclusion:  This study substantially extends previous research in the area, providing important insights with which to guide family-based obesity prevention strategies.

Associations between the home food environment and obesity-promoting eating behaviors in adolescence

Objective: This study examines relationships between multiple aspects of the home food environment and obesity-promoting characteristics of 12- to 13-year-old adolescents' diets, specifically frequency of consumption of high-energy fluids, sweet snacks, savory snacks, and take-out foods.

Research Methods: This was a cross-sectional study including 347 adolescents 12 to 13 years of age and their parents. Data were collected via self-completed surveys. The adolescents' diets were assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire derived from existing age-appropriate National Nutrition Survey data. An extensive range of domains within the home food environment were assessed. Bivariate linear regression analyses were run split by gender. Forced entry multiple linear regression analyses (adjusting for all variables significant in bivariate analyses as well as for maternal education) were also performed, stratified by the sex of the child.

Results: The influence of mothers, either as models for eating behaviors or as the providers of food, was pervasive. Mothers' intake of high-energy fluids (p = 0.003), sweet snacks (p = 0.010), savory snacks (p = 0.008), and take-out food (p = 0.007) was positively associated with boys' intake of all these foods. In addition, mothers' intake of high-energy fluids was positively associated with daughters' consumption of these drinks (p = 0.025). Furthermore, availability of unhealthy foods at home was positively associated with girls' sweet snack (p = 0.001), girls' savory snack (p < 0.001), boys' savory snack (p = 0.002), and, in the bivariate analyses, girls' high-energy fluid consumption (p = 0.002).

Discussion: This study of home food environment influences on adolescent diet highlights the pervasive influence of mothers in determining adolescents' obesity-promoting eating, providing direction for obesity prevention strategies and future research.

Takeaway food consumption, diet quality and abdominal obesity in young adults

Background - Takeaway food consumption is associated with a higher BMI and poorer diet quality in the USA but little is known about the association in Australians.
Objective - To examine if takeaway food consumption is associated with abdominal obesity and poorer diet quality in young Australian adults.
Design - A national sample of 1,277 men and 1,585 women aged 26-36 completed a self-administered questionnaire on demographic and lifestyle factors, a 127 item food frequency questionnaire, and usual frequency of fruit, vegetable and takeaway food consumption. Dietary intake was compared with the dietary recommendations of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. A pedometer was worn for seven days. Waist circumference was measured and moderate abdominal obesity was defined as ≥94 cm for men and ≥80 cm for women. Prevalence ratios (PR) were calculated using log binomial regression with eating takeaway food once a week or less as the reference group.
Outcomes - Consumption of takeaway food twice a week or more was reported by more men (37.9%) than women (17.7%). Participants eating takeaway food at least twice a week were less likely to meet the guidelines for vegetables (P<0.05 men and women), fruit (P<0.001 men and women), dairy (P<0.01 men and women), extra foods (P=0.001 men and women), breads and cereals (P<0.05 men only), lean meats and alternatives (P<0.05 women only) and overall met significantly fewer dietary guidelines (P<0.001 men and women) than participants eating takeaway less than twice per week. After adjusting for confounding variables (age, physical activity, TV viewing, and employment status) consuming takeaway food twice a week or more was associated with a 31% higher prevalence of moderate abdominal obesity in men (PR 1.31; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.61) and a 25% higher prevalence in women (PR 1.25; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.50).
Conclusion - Eating takeaway food twice a week or more was associated with poorer diet quality and a higher prevalence of moderate abdominal obesity in both young men and young women.

Takeaway food consumption and its associations with diet quality and abdominal obesity : a cross-sectional study of young adults

Background : Few studies have investigated the associations of takeaway food consumption with overall diet quality and abdominal obesity. Young adults are high consumers of takeaway food so we aimed to examine these associations in a national study of young Australian adults.

Methods : A national sample of 1,277 men and 1,585 women aged 26–36 completed a self-administered questionnaire on demographic and lifestyle factors, a 127 item food frequency questionnaire, usual daily frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption and usual weekly frequency of takeaway food consumption. Dietary intake was compared with the dietary recommendations from the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. Waist circumference was measured for 1,065 men and 1,129 women. Moderate abdominal obesity was defined as ≥ 94 cm for men and ≥ 80 cm for women. Prevalence ratios (PR) were calculated using log binomial regression. Takeaway food consumption was dichotomised, with once a week or less as the reference group.

Results : Consumption of takeaway food twice a week or more was reported by more men (37.9%) than women (17.7%, P < 0.001). Compared with those eating takeaway once a week or less, men eating takeaway twice a week or more were significantly more likely to be single, younger, current smokers and spend more time watching TV and sitting, whereas women were more likely to be in the workforce and spend more time watching TV and sitting. Participants eating takeaway food at least twice a week were less likely (P < 0.05) to meet the dietary recommendation for vegetables, fruit, dairy, extra foods, breads and cereals (men only), lean meat and alternatives (women only) and overall met significantly fewer dietary recommendations (P < 0.001). After adjusting for confounding variables (age, leisure time physical activity, TV viewing and employment status), consuming takeaway food twice a week or more was associated with a 31% higher prevalence of moderate abdominal obesity in men (PR: 1.31; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.61) and a 25% higher prevalence in women (PR: 1.25; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.50).

Conclusion : Eating takeaway food twice a week or more was associated with poorer diet quality and a higher prevalence of moderate abdominal obesity in young men and women.

Maternal plasma ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

Background : Antioxidants, particularly vitamin C (ascorbic acid), have the capacity to influence glucose tolerance. Modification of diet could reduce the likelihood of developing gestational diabetes mellitus.

Methods : In a prospective cohort study of pregnant women, we studied the association of maternal plasma ascorbic acid concentrations, measured at an average of 13 weeks' gestation, with subsequent risk of gestational diabetes. Maternal plasma ascorbic acid concentrations were determined using automated enzymatic procedures. Dietary vitamin C intake during the periconceptional period and early pregnancy was ascertained using a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. We fitted generalized linear models to derive estimates of relative risks and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results : Approximately 4% (n = 33) of 755 women who completed pregnancy developed gestational diabetes mellitus. Plasma ascorbic acid concentrations were inversely associated with the risk of gestational diabetes (P for trend = 0.023). After adjusting for maternal age, race, prepregnancy adiposity, parity, family history of type 2 diabetes, and household income, women with plasma ascorbic acid <55.9 micromol/L (lowest quartile) experienced a 3.1-fold increased risk of gestational diabetes (95% CI = 1.0 - 9.7) compared with women whose concentrations were > or = 74.6 micromol/L (upper quartile). Women who consumed <70 mg vitamin C daily experienced a 1.8-fold increased risk of gestational diabetes compared with women who consumed higher amounts (95% CI = 0.8 - 4.4).

Conclusions : If confirmed, our results raise the possibility that current efforts to encourage populations to consume diets rich in antioxidants, including vitamin C, could reduce the occurrence of gestational diabetes mellitus.

Family food environments as determinants of children's eating : implications for obesity prevention

The prevalence of childhood obesity is escalating rapidly and it considered to be a major public health problem. Diet is a recognised precursor of fatness, and current evidence supports the premise that in Westernised countries, the dietary intakes of children are likely to be important in obesity genesis. However, we have a relatively poor understanding of the environments in which a child’s eating is learnt and maintained. Much of the existing work in this area is based on small-scale or experimental studies, or has been derived from homogeneous populations within the USA. Despite these limitations, there is evidence that aspects of the child’s family environment are likely to be important in determining obesity risk in children. This thesis examines the impact of the family food environment on a child’s eating through two related studies. The first study, titled the Children and Family Eating (CAFÉ) study comprised three phases. Phase one involved qualitative interviews with 17 parents of 5-6 year-old children to explore parental perceptions regarding those factors in a child’s environment believed to influence the development of their child’s eating habits. These interviews were used to inform the development of quantitative measures of the family food environment. The second phase involved the development of a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) to assess dietary intake in 5-6 year-olds. The FFQ was informed by analysis of 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey data. In the final phase the relationships between dietary intakes of 5-6 year-old children, and potential predictors of dietary intake were examined in a cross-sectional study of 560 families. Predictors included measures of: parental perceptions of the adequacy of their child’s diet; food availability and accessibility; child-feeding; the opportunities for parental modelling of food intake; a child’s television exposure; maternal Body Mass Index; and maternal education. Analysis of the CAFÉ data provides unique information regarding the relationships between a child’s family food environment and their food consumption. Models developed for a range of dietary outcomes considered to be predictive of increased risk for obesity, including total energy and fat intakes, vegetable variety, vegetable consumption, and high-energy (non-dairy) fluid consumption, explained between 11 and 20 percent of the variance in dietary intake. Two aspects of the family food environment, parental perception of a child’s dietary adequacy, and the total minutes of television viewed per day, were frequently found to be predictive of dietary outcomes likely to promote fatness in these children. The second study, titled the Parent Education and Support (PEAS) Feeding Intervention Study, was a prospective pre/post non-randomised intervention trial that assessed the impact of a feeding intervention to 240 first-time mothers of one-year-old children. This intervention focused on one aspect of the family food environment, child-feeding, which has been proposed as influential in the development of obesogenic eating behaviours. In this study, Maternal and Child Health Nurses (MCHNs), using a ‘Division of Responsibility’ model of feeding, taught parents to provide nutritious food at regular intervals and to let children decide if to eat and how much to eat. Thus parents were encourages to food their child without exerting pressure, or employing coercion or rewards (controlling behaviours). The aim was to influence parental attitudes and beliefs regarding child-feeding. Through the use of these feeding techniques, this intervention also aimed to increase the variety of fruits and vegetables a child consumed by teaching parents to persist with offering these foods, over the year of the intervention, in non-emotive environments. Fruits and vegetables were chosen in this intervention because they are likely to be protective in the development of obesity. Analysis of the PEAS data suggests that this low-level feeding intervention, delivered through existing Maternal and Child Health services, was modestly effective in changing parental attitudes and beliefs regarding the feeding of young children. Further, the validity of fruits offered to intervention group children increased. This thesis expands the existing knowledge base by providing a comprehensive analysis of the relative impact of aspects of the family environment on dietary intakes of 5-6 year-olds. Further, the analysis of a feeding intervention in first-time parents provides important insights regarding the potential to influence child-feeding and the impact this may have on the promotion of eating behaviours protective against obesity.