Estimation of Genetic Divergence and Gene Flow between Culex pipiens and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) in Argentina

Allele frequencies at seven polymorphic loci controlling the synthesis of enzymes were analyzed in six populations of Culex pipiens L. and Cx. quinquefasciatus Say. Sampling sites were situated along a north-south line of about 2,000 km in Argentina. The predominant alleles at Mdh, Idh, Gpdh and Gpi loci presented similar frequencies in all the samples. Frequencies at the Pgm locus were similar for populations pairs sharing the same geographic area. The loci Cat and Hk-1 presented significant geographic variation. The latter showed a marked latitudinal cline, with a frequency for allele b ranging from 0.99 in the northernmost point to 0.04 in the southernmost one, a pattern that may be explained by natural selection (FST = 0.46; p < 0.0001) on heat sensitive alleles. The average value of FST (0.088) and Nm (61.12) indicated a high gene flow between adjacent populations. A high correlation was found between genetic and geographic distance (r = 0.83; p < 0.001). The highest genetic identity (IN = 0.988) corresponded to the geographically closest samples from the central area. In one of these localities Cx. quinquefasciatus was predominant and hybrid individuals were detected, while in the other, almost all the specimens were identified as Cx. pipiens. To verify the fertility between Cx. pipiens and Cx. quinquefasciatus from the northern- and southernmost populations, experimental crosses were performed. Viable egg rafts were obtained from both reciprocal crosses. Hatching ranged from 76.5 to 100%. The hybrid progenies were fertile through two subsequent generations

Geographic patterns in the distribution of social systems in terrestrial arthropods.

The role of ecology in the evolution and maintenance of arthropod sociality has received increasing research attention in recent years. In some organisms, such as halictine bees, polistine wasps, and social spiders, researchers are investigating the environmental factors that may contribute to high levels of variation in the degree of sociality exhibited both among and within species. Within lineages that include only eusocial members, such as ants and termites, studies focus more on identifying extrinsic factors that may contribute to the dramatic variation in colony size, number of queens, and division of labour that is evident across these species. In this review, I propose a comparative approach that seeks to identify environmental factors that may have a common influence across such divergent social arthropod groups. I suggest that seeking common biogeographic patterns in the distribution of social systems or key social traits may help us to identify ecological factors that play a common role in shaping the evolution of sociality across different organisms. I first review previous studies of social gradients that form along latitudinal and altitudinal axes. Within families and within species, many organisms show an increasing degree of sociality at lower latitudes and altitudes. In a smaller number of cases, organisms form larger groups or found nests cooperatively at higher latitudes and altitudes. I then describe several environmental factors that vary consistently along such gradients, including climate variables and abundance of predators, and outline their proposed role in the social systems of terrestrial arthropods. Finally, I map distributions of a social trait against several climatic factors in five case studies to demonstrate how future comparative studies could inform empirical research.

Possible influence of the ENSO phenomenon on the pathoecology of diphyllobothriasis and anisakiasis in ancient Chinchorro populations

Current clinical data show a clear relationship between the zoonosis rates of Diphyllobothrium pacificum and Anisakis caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillations (ENSO) phenomenon along the Chilean coast. These parasites are endemic to the region and have a specific habitat distribution. D. pacificum prefers the warmer waters in the northern coast, while Anisakis prefers the colder waters of Southern Chile. The ENSO phenomenon causes a drastic inversion in the seawater temperatures in this region, modifying both the cool nutrient-rich seawater and the local ecology. This causes a latitudinal shift in marine parasite distribution and prevalence, as well as drastic environmental changes. The abundance of human mummies and archaeological coastal sites in the Atacama Desert provides an excellent model to test the ENSO impact on antiquity. We review the clinical and archaeological literature debating to what extent these parasites affected the health of the Chinchorros, the earliest settlers of this region. We hypothesise the Chinchorro and their descendants were affected by this natural and cyclical ENSO phenomenon and should therefore present fluctuating rates of D. pacificum and Anisakis infestations.

Interaccions arbre-arbust al límit superior del bosc i efectes de gradients bioclimàtics en la vegetació

Durant el periode d’elaboració d’aquesta tesi hem aprofundit en el coneixement dels factors que controlen les dinàmiques espacio-temporals del límit superior del bosc. Aquest ecotò se situa entre el límit superior del bosc i els prats alpins i és susceptible a canvis ambientals, fet que provoca que fluctuï altitudinalment i latitudinalment en funció d’aquests canvis. Els motius d’aquesta dinàmica s’ha estudiat sovint des d’un punt de vista climàtic, però mai fins ara s’havia estudiat des d’un punt de vista de les interaccions entre organismes. Per aquest fet hem estat evaluant l’efecte de les interaccions planta-planta en la regulació de la dinàmica supraforestal. L’estudi l’hem emmarcat en un context alpí (als Pirineus Catalans) i en un context subàrtic (Lapònia, Suècia), fet que ens ha permès fer un estudi comparatiu en dos ecotons contrastats però homòlegs ecològicament. Hem desenvolupat una sèrie d’experiments considerant diversos factors (augment de temperatura, quantitat de nutrients, presència d’arbust, posició en l’ecotò); en les dues zones d’estudi hem fet una plantació de plançons dels arbres formadors del límit del bosc en les diverses situacions derivades de la combinació d’aquests factors, i hem fet el seguiment fenològic dels plançons durant tres periodes de creixement. Els resultats dels experiments ens han permès veure que les interaccions entre organismes tenen una gran importància en la regulació de la dinàmica supraforestal, tant als Pirineus com a Lapònia. Les interaccions planta-planta i planta-herbívors determinen el reclutament de plançons i per tant l’estructuració de les comunitats supraforestals. Per altra banda, la posició en l’ecotò evidencia la presència d’un gradient bioclimàtic; les manipulacions ambientals de temperatura i nutrients originen una resposta generalment positiva en el desenvolupament dels plançons, indicant que canvis en aquestes variables pot suposar alteracions notables de l’estructura forestal del límit del bosc. Per altra banda en aquest projecte també hem aprofundit en temes relacionats amb l'efecte dels gradients altitudinals en la distribució de plantes vasculars als Pirineus Catalans.

Interaccions arbre-arbust al límit superior del bosc i efectes de gradients bioclimàtics en la vegetació

Durant el periode d’elaboració d’aquesta tesi hem aprofundit en el coneixement dels factors que controlen les dinàmiques espacio-temporals del límit superior del bosc. Aquest ecotò se situa entre el límit superior del bosc i els prats alpins i és susceptible a canvis ambientals, fet que provoca que fluctuï altitudinalment i latitudinalment en funció d’aquests canvis. Els motius d’aquesta dinàmica s’ha estudiat sovint des d’un punt de vista climàtic, però mai fins ara s’havia estudiat des d’un punt de vista de les interaccions entre organismes. Per aquest fet hem estat evaluant l’efecte de les interaccions planta-planta en la regulació de la dinàmica supraforestal. L’estudi l’hem emmarcat en un context alpí (als Pirineus Catalans) i en un context subàrtic (Lapònia, Suècia), fet que ens ha permès fer un estudi comparatiu en dos ecotons contrastats però homòlegs ecològicament. Hem desenvolupat una sèrie d’experiments considerant diversos factors (augment de temperatura, quantitat de nutrients, presència d’arbust, posició en l’ecotò); en les dues zones d’estudi hem fet una plantació de plançons dels arbres formadors del límit del bosc en les diverses situacions derivades de la combinació d’aquests factors, i hem fet el seguiment fenològic dels plançons durant tres periodes de creixement. Els resultats dels experiments ens han permès veure que les interaccions entre organismes tenen una gran importància en la regulació de la dinàmica supraforestal, tant als Pirineus com a Lapònia. Les interaccions planta-planta i planta-herbívors determinen el reclutament de plançons i per tant l’estructuració de les comunitats supraforestals. Per altra banda, la posició en l’ecotò evidencia la presència d’un gradient bioclimàtic; les manipulacions ambientals de temperatura i nutrients originen una resposta generalment positiva en el desenvolupament dels plançons, indicant que canvis en aquestes variables pot suposar alteracions notables de l’estructura forestal del límit del bosc. Per altra banda en aquest projecte també hem aprofundit en temes relacionats amb l'efecte dels gradients altitudinals en la distribució de plantes vasculars als Pirineus Catalans.

Large-scale patterns in morphological diversity and species assemblages in Neotropical Triatominae (Heteroptera: Reduviidae)

We analysed the spatial variation in morphological diversity (MDiv) and species richness (SR) for 91 species of Neotropical Triatominae to determine the ecological relationships between SR and MDiv and to explore the roles that climate, productivity, environmental heterogeneity and the presence of biomes and rivers may play in the structuring of species assemblages. For each 110 km x 110 km-cell on a grid map of America, we determined the number of species (SR) and estimated the mean Gower index (MDiv) based on 12 morphological attributes. We performed bootstrapping analyses of species assemblages to identify whether those assemblages were more similar or dissimilar in their morphology than expected by chance. We applied a multi-model selection procedure and spatial explicit analyses to account for the association of diversity-environment relationships. MDiv and SR both showed a latitudinal gradient, although each peaked at different locations and were thus not strictly spatially congruent. SR decreased with temperature variability and MDiv increased with mean temperature, suggesting a predominant role for ambient energy in determining Triatominae diversity. Species that were more similar than expected by chance co-occurred near the limits of the Triatominae distribution in association with changes in environmental variables. Environmental filtering may underlie the structuring of species assemblages near their distributional limits.

Genetic consequences of the ice ages on nurseries of the bat Myotis myotis: a mitochondrial and nuclear survey.

Analyses of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region polymorphism and of variation at 10 nuclear microsatellite loci were used to investigate the mechanisms and genetic consequences of postglacial expansion of Myotis myotis in Europe. Initial sampling consisted of 480 bats genotyped in 24 nursery colonies arranged along a transect of approximately 3000 km. The phylogeographical survey based on mtDNA sequences revealed the existence of major genetic subdivisions across this area, with several suture zones between haplogroups. Such zones of secondary contact were found in the Alps and Rhodopes, whereas other potential barriers to gene flow, like the Pyrenees, did not coincide with genetic discontinuities. Areas of population admixture increased locally the genetic diversity of colonies, which confounded the northward decrease in nucleotide diversity predicted using classical models of postglacial range expansion. However, when analyses were restricted to a subset of 15 nurseries originating from a single presumed glacial refugium, mtDNA polymorphism did indeed support a northwards decrease in diversity. Populations were also highly structured (PhiST = 0.384). Conversely, the same subset of colonies showed no significant latitudinal decrease in microsatellite diversity and much less population structure (FST = 0.010), but pairwise genetic differentiation at these nuclear markers was strongly correlated with increasing geographical distance. Together, this evidence suggests that alleles carried via male bats have maintained enough nuclear gene flow to counteract the effects of recurrent bottlenecks generally associated with recolonization processes. As females are highly philopatric, we argue that the maternally transmitted mtDNA marker better reflects the situation of past, historical gene flow, whereas current levels of gene flow are better reflected by microsatellite markers.

Generalized food-deceptive orchid species flower earlier and occur at lower altitudes than rewarding ones

Aims Food-deceptive pollination, in which plants do not offer any food reward to their pollinators, is common within the Orchidaceae. As food-deceptive orchids are poorer competitors for pollinator visitation than rewarding orchids, their occurrence in a given habitat may be more constrained than that of rewarding orchids. In particular, the success of deceptive orchids strongly relies on several biotic factors such as interactions with co-flowering rewarding species and pollinators, which may vary with altitude and over time. Our study compares generalized food-deceptive (i.e. excluding sexually deceptive) and rewarding orchids to test whether (i) deceptive orchids flower earlier compared to their rewarding counterparts and whether (ii) the relative occurrence of deceptive orchids decreases with increasing altitude. Methods To compare the flowering phenology of rewarding and deceptive orchids, we analysed data compiled from the literature at the species level over the occidental Palaearctic area. Since flowering phenology can be constrained by the latitudinal distribution of the species and by their phylogenetic relationships, we accounted for these factors in our analysis. To compare the altitudinal distribution of rewarding and deceptive orchids, we used field observations made over the entire Swiss territory and over two Swiss mountain ranges. Important Findings We found that deceptive orchid species start flowering earlier than rewarding orchids do, which is in accordance with the hypotheses of exploitation of naive pollinators and/or avoidance of competition with rewarding co-occurring species. Also, the relative frequency of deceptive orchids decreases with altitude, suggesting that deception may be less profitable at high compared to low altitude.

Extremal principle of entropy production in the climate system

Paltridge found reasonable values for the most significant climatic variables through maximizing the material transport part of entropy production by using a simple box model. Here, we analyse Paltridge's box model to obtain the energy and the entropy balance equations separately. Derived expressions for global entropy production, which is a function of the radiation field, and even its material transport component, are shown to be different from those used by Paltridge. Plausible climatic states are found at extrema of these parameters. Feasible results are also obtained by minimizing the radiation part of entropy production, in agreement with one of Planck's results, Finally, globally averaged values of the entropy flux of radiation and material entropy production are obtained for two dynamical extreme cases: an earth with uniform temperature, and an earth in radiative equilibrium at each latitudinal point

Linking life-history traits, ecology, and niche breadth evolution in north american eriogonoids (polygonaceae).

Abstract Macroevolutionary and microevolutionary studies provide complementary explanations of the processes shaping the evolution of niche breadth. Macroevolutionary approaches scrutinize factors such as the temporal and spatial environmental heterogeneities that drive differentiation among species. Microevolutionary studies, in contrast, focus on the processes that affect intraspecific variability. We combine these perspectives by using macroevolutionary models in a comparative study of intraspecific variability. We address potential differences in rates of evolution of niche breadth and position in annual and perennial plants of the Eriogonoideae subfamily of the Polygonaceae. We anticipated higher rates of evolution in annuals than in perennials owing to differences in generation time that are paralleled by rates of molecular evolution. Instead, we found that perennial eriogonoid species present greater environmental tolerance (wider climate niche) than annual species. Niche breadth of perennial species has evolved two to four times faster than in annuals, while niche optimum has diversified more rapidly among annual species than among perennials. Niche breadth and average elevation of species are correlated. Moreover, niche breadth increases more rapidly with mean species elevation in perennials than in annuals. Our results suggest that both environmental gradients and life-history strategy influence rates and patterns of niche breadth evolution.

Bioclimatic constraints to Andean cat distribution: a modelling application for rare species

AimTo identify the bioclimatic niche of the endangered Andean cat (Leopardus jacobita), one of the rarest and least known felids in the world, by developing a species distribution model.LocationSouth America, High Andes and Patagonian steppe. Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina.MethodsWe used 108 Andean cat records to build the models, and 27 to test them, applying the Maxent algorithm to sets of uncorrelated bioclimatic variables from global databases, including elevation. We based our biogeographical interpretations on the examination of the predicted geographic range, the modelled response curves and latitudinal variations in climatic variables associated with the locality data.ResultsSimple bioclimatic models for Andean cats were highly predictive with only 3-4 explanatory variables. The climatic niche of the species was defined by extreme diurnal variations in temperature, cold minimum and moderate maximum temperatures, and aridity, characteristic not only of the Andean highlands but also of the Patagonian steppe. Argentina had the highest representation of suitable climates, and Chile the lowest. The most favourable conditions were centrally located and spanned across international boundaries. Discontinuities in suitable climatic conditions coincided with three biogeographical barriers associated with climatic or topographic transitions.Main conclusionsSimple bioclimatic models can produce useful predictions of suitable climatic conditions for rare species, including major biogeographical constraints. In our study case, these constraints are also known to affect the distribution of other Andean species and the genetic structure of Andean cat populations. We recommend surveys of areas with suitable climates and no Andean cat records, including the corridor connecting two core populations. The inclusion of landscape variables at finer scales, crucially the distribution of Andean cat prey, would contribute to refine our predictions for conservation applications.

Geographic variation in sex-chromosome differentiation in the common frog (Rana temporaria).

In sharp contrast with birds and mammals, sex-determination systems in ectothermic vertebrates are often highly dynamic and sometimes multifactorial. Both environmental and genetic effects have been documented in common frogs (Rana temporaria). One genetic linkage group, mapping to the largest pair of chromosomes and harbouring the candidate sex-determining gene Dmrt1, associates with sex in several populations throughout Europe, but association varies both within and among populations. Here, we show that sex association at this linkage group differs among populations along a 1500-km transect across Sweden. Genetic differentiation between sexes is strongest (FST  = 0.152) in a northern-boreal population, where male-specific alleles and heterozygote excesses (FIS  = -0.418 in males, +0.025 in females) testify to a male-heterogametic system and lack of X-Y recombination. In the southernmost population (nemoral climate), in contrast, sexes share the same alleles at the same frequencies (FST  = 0.007 between sexes), suggesting unrestricted recombination. Other populations show intermediate levels of sex differentiation, with males falling in two categories: some cluster with females, while others display male-specific Y haplotypes. This polymorphism may result from differences between populations in the patterns of X-Y recombination, co-option of an alternative sex-chromosome pair, or a mixed sex-determination system where maleness is controlled either by genes or by environment depending on populations or families. We propose approaches to test among these alternative models, to disentangle the effects of climate and phylogeography on the latitudinal trend, and to sort out how this polymorphism relates to the 'sexual races' described in common frogs in the 1930s.

O gênero Apenesia (Hymenoptera, Bethylidae) na Mata Atlântica: notas e descrição de sete espécies novas

Foram estudadas as espécies de Apenesia Westwood, coletadas em 29 localidades ao longo de um gradiente latitudinal na Mata Atlântica. Foram descritas e ilustradas as sete espécies novas seguintes: Apenesia pectinata sp. nov., A. atlantica sp. nov., A. perlonga sp. nov., A. exigua sp. nov., A. patens sp. nov., A. simplex sp. nov., A. hepatica sp. nov.. Foi descoberta e descrita a fêmea de Apenesia elongata Evans, 1963. Foram adicionados registros novos de distribuição geográfica de quatorze espécies previamente descritas: A. apicilata Azevedo & Batista, A. aurita Waichert & Azevedo, A. clypeata Leal & Azevedo, A. concavata Corrêa & Azevedo, A. crenutala (Kieffer), A. distincta Corrêa & Azevedo, A. elongata Evans, A. inca Evans, A. neotropica (Kieffer), A. photophila (Ogloblin), A. quadrata Evans, A. spinipes Evans, A. stricta Corrêa & Azevedo e A. transversa Evans. Apenesia é registrada pela primeira vez para os estados de Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe e Bahia.

Species of Euglossa (Glossura) in the Brazilian Atlantic forest, with taxonomic notes on Euglossa stellfeldi Moure (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Euglossina)

The species of Euglossa (Glossura) occuring in the Brazilian Atlantic forest were revised and an identification key to males and females is provided. The status of Euglossa annectans Dressler and E. stellfeldi Moure is reevaluated and the latter species is transferred from E. (Glossura) to E. (Glossurella). Here we also synonymize E. carinilabris Dressler under E. stellfeldi. Taxonomic notes are provided and relevant morphological features are illustred. Latitudinal color variation along the Brazilian Atlantic forest, found in two of the species studied here, is also presented and discussed.

Informe del censo de lobos marinos efectuado en abril - mayo de 1979

Evalúa las poblaciones de lobos marinos del litoral peruano, determinando además, las composición por especies distribución latitudinal y proporción por sexos y fue realizada del 17 de abril al de mayo de 1979.