Combating computer crime : an international perspective

Given the serious nature of computer crime, and its global nature and implications, it is clear that there is a crucial need for a common understanding of such criminal activity internationally in order to deal with it effectively. Research into the extent to which legislation, international initiatives, and policy and procedures to combat and investigate computer crime are consistent globally is therefore of enormous importance. The challenge is to study, analyse, and compare the policies and practices of combating computer crime under different jurisdictions in order to identify the extent to which they are consistent with each other and with international guidelines; and the extent of their successes and limitations. The purpose ultimately is to identify areas where improvements are needed and what those improvements should be. This thesis examines approaches used for combating computer crime, including money laundering, in Australia, the UAE, the UK and the USA, four countries which represent a spectrum of economic development and culture. It does so in the context of the guidelines of international organizations such as the Council of Europe (CoE) and the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). In the case of the UAE, we examine also the cultural influences which differentiate it from the other three countries and which has necessarily been a factor in shaping its approaches for countering money laundering in particular. The thesis concludes that because of the transnational nature of computer crime there is a need internationally for further harmonisation of approaches for combating computer crime. The specific contributions of the thesis are as follows: „h Developing a new unified comprehensive taxonomy of computer crime based upon the dual characteristics of the role of the computer and the contextual nature of the crime „h Revealing differences in computer crime legislation in Australia, the UAE, the UK and the USA, and how they correspond to the CoE Convention on Cybercrime and identifying a new framework to develop harmonised computer crime or cybercrime legislation globally „h Identifying some important issues that continue to create problems for law enforcement agencies such as insufficient resources, coping internationally with computer crime legislation that differs between countries, having comprehensive documented procedures and guidelines for combating computer crime, and reporting and recording of computer crime offences as distinct from other forms of crime „h Completing the most comprehensive study currently available regarding the extent of money laundered in four such developed or fast developing countries „h Identifying that the UK and the USA are the most advanced with regard to anti-money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism (AML/CFT) systems among the four countries based on compliance with the FATF recommendations. In addition, the thesis has identified that local factors have affected how the UAE has implemented its financial and AML/CFT systems and reveals that such local and cultural factors should be taken into account when implementing or evaluating any country¡¦s AML/CFT system.

Teaching and Learning in Maritime Security: A Literature Review

With the rise in attacks and attempted attacks on marine‐based critical infrastructure, maritime security is an issue of increasing importance worldwide. However, there are three significant shortfalls in the efforts to overcome potential threats to maritime security: the need for greater understanding of whether current standards of best practice are truly successful in combating and reducing the risks of terrorism and other security issues, the absence of a collective maritime security best practice framework and the need for improved access to maritime security specific graduate and postgraduate (long) courses. This paper presents an overview of existing international, regional national standards of best practice and shows that literature concerning the measurement and/ or success of standards is virtually non‐existent. In addition, despite the importance of maritime workers to ensuring the safety of marine based critical infrastructure, a similar review of available Australian education courses shows a considerable lack of availability of maritime security‐specific courses other than short courses that cover only basic security matters. We argue that the absence of an Australian best practice framework informed by evaluation of current policy responses – particularly in the post 9/11 environment – leaves Australia vulnerable to maritime security threats. As this paper shows, the reality is that despite the security measures put in place post 9/11, there is still considerable work to be done to ensure Australia is equipped to overcome the threats posed to maritime security.

Feminism and Global Justice

This book attempts to persuade a new generation of scholars, criminologists, activists, and policy makers sympathetic to the quest for global justice to open the envelope, to step out of their comfort zones and typical frames of analysis to gaze at a world full of injustice against the female sex, much of it systemic, linked to culture, custom and religion. In some instances the sources of these injustices intersect with those that produce global inequality, imperialism and racism. This book also investigates circumstances where the globalising forces cultivate male on male violence in the anomic spaces of supercapitalism – the border zones of Mexico and the United States, and the frontier mining communities in the Australian desert. However systemic gendered injustices, such as forced marriage of child female brides, sati the cremation of widows, genital cutting, honour crimes, rape and domestic violence against women, are forms of violence only experienced by the female sex. The book does not shirk away from female violence either. Carrington argues that if feminism wants to have a voice in the public, cultural, political and criminological debates about heightened, albeit often exaggerated, social concerns about growing female violence and engagement in terrorism, then new directions in theorising female violence are required. Feminist silences about the violent crimes, atrocities and acts of terrorism committed by the female sex leave anti-feminist explanations uncontested. This allows a discursive space for feminist backlash ideologues to flourish. This book contests those ideologies to offer counter explanations for the rise in female violence and female terrorism, in a global context where systemic gendered violence against women is alarming and entrenched. The world needs feminism to take hold across the globe, now more than ever.

How terrorist campaigns end : The Rode Jeugd in the Netherlands and the Symbionese Liberation Army in the United States

This study explores the decline of terrorism by conducting source-based case studies on two left-wing terrorist campaigns in the 1970s, those of the Rode Jeugd in the Netherlands and the Symbionese Liberation Army in the United States. The purpose of the case studies is to bring more light into the interplay of different external and internal factors in the development of terrorist campaigns. This is done by presenting the history of the two chosen campaigns as narratives from the participants’ points of view, based on interviews with participants and extensive archival material. Organizational resources and dynamics clearly influenced the course of the two campaigns, but in different ways. This divergence derives at least partly from dissimilarities in organizational design and the incentive structure. Comparison of even these two cases shows that organizations using terrorism as a strategy can differ significantly, even when they share ideological orientation, are of the same size and operate in the same time period. Theories on the dynamics of terrorist campaigns would benefit from being more sensitive to this. The study also highlights that the demise of a terrorist organization does not necessarily lead to the decline of the terrorist campaign. Therefore, research should look at the development of terrorist activity beyond the lifespan of a single organization. The collective ideological beliefs and goals functioned primarily as a sustaining force, a lens through which the participants interpreted all developments. On the other hand, it appears that the role of ideology should not be overstated. Namely, not all participants in the campaigns under study fully internalized the radical ideology. Rather, their participation was mainly based on their friendship with other participants. Instead of ideology per se, it is more instructive to look at how those involved described their organization, themselves and their role in the revolutionary struggle. In both cases under study, the choice of the terrorist strategy was not merely a result of a cost-benefit calculation, but an important part of the participants’ self-image. Indeed, the way the groups portrayed themselves corresponded closely with the forms of action that they got involved in. Countermeasures and the lack of support were major reasons for the decline of the campaigns. However, what is noteworthy is that the countermeasures would not have had the same kind of impact had it not been for certain weaknesses of the groups themselves. Moreover, besides the direct impact the countermeasures had on the campaign, equally important was how they affected the attitudes of the larger left-wing community and the public in general. In this context, both the attitudes towards the terrorist campaign and the authorities were relevant to the outcome of the campaigns.

A obrigação de extraditar para a repressão do terrorismo: a prática brasileira à luz do direito penal transnacional

O combate efetivo ao flagelo secular do terrorismo, ainda que possa se revestir de muitas formas, não prescinde da repressão penal de seus autores. Em vista da maciça internacionalização do terrorismo, a partir do Século XX, a cooperação jurídica internacional em matéria penal (aí incluída a extradição) consolida-se como instrumento de essencial importância para a repressão do terrorismo pela comunidade internacional, com a vantagem de resguardar o domínio do direito e, por conseguinte, de assegurar a paz e a segurança internacionais. A evolução do tratamento do crime de terrorismo pelo direito penal transnacional influenciada pelo direito da segurança coletiva, especialmente a partir dos atentados de 11 de setembro de 2001 exerceu expressivo impacto no direito extradicional. O entendimento desse efeito é fundamental para extrair-se do instituto da extradição todo o seu potencial para a repressão penal do terrorismo. Desde que presentes determinados requisitos, uma conduta de caráter terrorista à luz de parâmetros internacionais gera a obrigação estatal de extraditar ou processar seu autor, mesmo na ausência de tratado. Além disso, a extradição exercida ou não em decorrência de obrigação convencional tem seus princípios afetados pela obrigação internacional de repressão do terrorismo, particularmente no que se refere a questões como extraditabilidade, extradição por crimes políticos e extradição de refugiados. O direito brasileiro apresenta algumas vulnerabilidades para o cumprimento da obrigação aut dedere aut iudicare e a prática judicial brasileira relativa à extradição de acusados de atos de terrorismo poderia reportar-se mais ao direito internacional, com vistas a evitar o risco de violação de obrigações internacionais pelo Brasil.

Os efeitos políticos da securitização internacional do terrorismo pós-11/09: o caso da Organização de Cooperação de Xangai

Esta dissertação trata do que se entende como terrorismo após os atentados de setembro de 2001, seja como lógica de ação ou como método de ação. A partir desta data, o terrorismo alcançou enorme projeção e passou a figurar como tema central tanto na imprensa cotidiana quanto em reuniões internacionais de cúpula. O fenômeno era, muitas vezes, historicamente circunscrito às nações que enfrentavam esse problema. Após o Onze de Setembro, o debate expandiu-se e as políticas, e a propaganda, antiterroristas incidiram sobre a sociedade, modificando comportamentos individuais e coletivos. A associação entre Islamismo e terrorismo foi frequente e a Guerra Contra ao Terror (GCT), promovida pela política externa norte-americana de George W. Bush, contribuiu para difundir uma percepção do terrorismo como uma lógica de ação afeita à violência em si. Isso contrasta com a percepção quanto a grupos terroristas de momentos históricos anteriores, cujo recurso ao terrorismo era compreendido como método de ação com valor instrumental para alcançar objetivos políticos diversos, como a emancipação nacional e a desestabilização de regimes políticos estabelecidos. O estudo de caso da Organização de Xangai (OCX) visa demonstrar que a identificação entre terrorismo e Islã leva ao equívoco de compreender os grupos terroristas contemporâneos islâmicos, com lógicas próprias, como uma fenômeno só o que leva à imprecisão de atribuir ao terrorismo o caráter de primeiro fenômeno macro-securitizado. Este breve histórico da ascensão do terrorismo na agenda política contemporânea, mediante a análise do processo securitizador tanto na GCT quanto na Organização de Cooperação de Xangai, serve como referência para as análises contidas no trabalho que o leitor tem em mãos, uma vez que o sentido atribuído ao terrorismo só pode ser entendido em termos dos atores políticos envolvidos na sua definição e no contexto em qual o fazem. Na OCX, o verificou-se o entendimento do terrorismo como método de ação de grupos separatistas, o que não corresponde à ideia do terrorismo como lógica de ação contida na GCT.

How Could We Explore the Terrorist Issue?

The problem of terrorism can be analyzed by means of a wide array of research theories and models. There is however a question which of these may be regarded as especially useful to analyze different aspects of terrorism such as its reasons, characteristics and effects. Among concepts or theories which more or less fulfill the above-mentioned requirements, one can mention: chaos theory, decision theory, spatial competition theory, exchange theory, black box theory, theory of disaster, system model, model of billiard balls, core model, asymmetrical model, network model or concept of hybridity.

Welcome to the new world disorder: conflict and transformation in Ian McEwan’s saturday

Ian McEwan‘s novel Saturday deals with the complex issues of conflict and transformation in the age of terrorism. The plot presents one internal dilemma and several interpersonal altercations that occur within a mere twenty-four hours: a) Perowne (the protagonist) vs. himself, in face of his ambivalent thoughts regarding British military participation in the war in the Middle East; b) The protagonist vs. Baxter, a ruffian from East End, in the context of a car accident; c) Perowne vs. a fellow anaesthetist, Jay Strauss, during a squash game; d) Perowne‘s daughter, Daisy vs. her grandfather, John Grammaticus, both poets and rivals; e) Perowne‘s family vs. Baxter, who intrudes the protagonist‘s house. In this paper, I exemplify, analyse and discuss how: a) Understanding the causes of what we call evil constitutes an important step towards mutual understanding; b) Both science and arts (which Perowne considers, at first, irrelevant) are important elements in the process of transformation; c) Both personal and interpersonal conflicts are intrinsic to human nature — but they also propitiate healthy changes in behaviour and opinion, through reflection. In order to do so, I resort to Saturday, and to the work of several specialists in the field of conflict management.

Terrorismo

This thesis’ goal is to study the relationship between the Islamic State and Al-Qaeda, notably the hypotheses that the Islamic State derives from Al-Qaeda. The topic to be developed in the following pages is based in reliable sources so that we can obtain the most accurate possible conclusions. In preparation of this report, several quotes were used in order to present correct settings and make logical deductions based on documents. It aims to be a modest contribution to a reflection on the theme, which is addressed in a very general way. Concepts of terrorism and Islamic fundamentalism are addressed in the thesis. Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the response to terrorism are presented, with the aim of understanding the degree of complexity underlying the Islamic State.

O espaço das informações no combate ao terrorismo

The management of terrorism presents an added importance because of the ignorance and uncertainty that this threat to peace launches in societies. From the globalization process has resulted a capacity of mobility and communication which allowed the spread of terrorism globally and hence the ability to be in the international agenda. Thus it became necessary a synergy between the main international organizations and states, in the common interest of managing terrorism to acceptable levels. This thesis aims to assess how much space is reserved for intelligence on combating terrorism. To this end, it carried out a literature review related to intelligence, security and terrorism, such as legislation and official documents, national and international. These allowed realize the strategies for combating terrorism of major international organizations and the Portuguese, the institutions that are in charge of fighting terrorism and related crimes, highlighting the intelligence institutions within the European Union and Portugal. Intelligence should enter on this panel by the need to meet the threat and its contours. On the one hand lies to understand the framework which establishes terrorism, tracing relevant scenarios to reduce uncertainty in decision-making and, on the other hand, also be responsible for disseminating information to other stakeholders on security, allowing its commands to use the means efficiently.

Arte e terrorismo: meta-representações da Arte

Tendo como ponto de partida os estudos da performance para a análise do terrorismo, a presente dissertação teve como resultado a possibilidade de reflectir sobre tácticas de incorporação, reperformance e meta-teatro, três conceitos que permitem compreender de que forma a arte assimila e se compreende em relação com o terrorismo. Apresenta, por um lado, documentos oficiais que demonstram a existência de um conflito quanto à definição de terrorismo, reflectindo sobre “terrorismo de estado” e “contra-estado”. Por outro lado, a partir da análise dos Surveillence Camera Players e da performance Three Posters, ou de artistas como Hasan Elahy e Alyson Wyper, esta dissertação defende que a arte reperforma “táticas de representação” e realização mediática do terrorismo, nomeadamente, o teatro panóptico, a tortura como performance e os vídeo-testemunhos de mártires como retratos e vídeo-performances.

El extranjero y el derecho a la justicia en Canadá tras el 11 de septiembre

After the events of September 11, the fear of terrorism led to the adoption of new anti-terrorist measures (elimination of appeals available to foreigners, reduction of legal aid, increased powers of detention, easier use of security certificates…). But in Canadian Charter of Rigths and Freedoms only the right to vote and be elected, the right to enter and remain in the country and the minority language educational rights specifically protect citizens. The protection of Canadian citizens cannot be based on the denial of foreigner´s rights. The same rights are at stake: The violation of a foreigners´s rights is a violation of citizen´s rights.

La lutte au terrorisme international au Canada: panopticon ou banopticon ?

Depuis quelques années, mais surtout depuis le 11 septembre 2001, les contrôles migratoires sont devenus le locus principal d’affirmation du pouvoir souverain dans les pays occidentaux. La mouvance sécuritaire actuelle semble avoir donné les outils conceptuels nécessaires aux États pour leur permettre d’amalgamer des notions autrefois distinctes, comme la sécurité et l’immigration, et d’en inférer des liens qui paraissent désormais naturels et évidents aux yeux du public. Le Canada s’inscrit aussi dans cette mouvance où l’immigrant et l’étranger sont désormais pensés en relation avec l’illégalité, la criminalité et le sujet de non-droit. En pratique, cela se traduit par la mise en œuvre étatique d’un pouvoir souverain qui se manifeste clairement et ouvertement dans le cadre de contrôles migratoires de plus en plus serrés et contraignants. Ainsi, alimenté par la justification sécuritaire, par l’affect de la peur et par la nécessité de combattre le terrorisme international, le Canada applique ses lois et ses politiques de manière à exercer un contrôle accru sur sa population, plus particulièrement sur les migrants en général, mais encore davantage sur les demandeurs d’asile et les réfugiés soupçonnés de terrorisme. La mise en œuvre de pratiques restrictives à l’endroit des demandeurs d’asile et des réfugiés est facilitée par une conviction très tenace. À la lumière de son comportement, le gouvernement canadien semble convaincu que l’exclusion, l’expulsion, voire le refoulement, à l’extérieur du territoire national des personnes jugées être de potentiels terroristes, permettront de renforcer la sécurité nationale. Cette conviction est elle-même supportée par une autre, à savoir la croyance selon laquelle le pouvoir souverain d’exclure quelqu’un du territoire est absolu et, qu’en situation d’exception, il ne peut être limité d’aucune manière par le droit international. Suivant ceci, la lutte antiterroriste s’exécute presque exclusivement par le rejet des éléments potentiellement dangereux à l’extérieur du pays, au détriment d’autres mesures moins attentatoires des droits et libertés, plus légitimes et plus à même de remplir les objectifs liés à la lutte au terrorisme international. Dans notre étude, par une relecture d’une décision paradigmatique de la Cour suprême du Canada, l’affaire Suresh, nous chercherons à ébranler ces convictions. Notre thèse est à l’effet que la prétention du Canada à vouloir en arriver à un monde plus sécuritaire, en excluant d’une protection internationale contre la torture et en refoulant de potentiels terroristes à l'extérieur de son territoire, constitue une entreprise vouée à l’échec allant potentiellement à l’encontre des objectifs de lutte au terrorisme et qui se réalise présentement dans le déni de ses obligations internationales relatives aux droits de l’Homme et à la lutte contre l’impunité. Généralement, à la lumière d’une analyse de certaines obligations du Canada dans ces domaines, notre étude révélera trois éléments, ceux-ci se trouvant en filigrane de toute notre réflexion. Premièrement, le pouvoir souverain du Canada d’exclure des individus de son territoire n’est pas absolu. Deuxièmement, le droit d’une personne à obtenir protection non plus n’est pas absolu et des mécanismes d’équilibrage existant en droit international permettent de protéger les personnes tout en s’assurant que le Canada ne devienne pas un refuge pour les terroristes potentiels. Troisièmement, le Canada est astreint à d’autres obligations internationales. Celles-ci protègent les personnes exclues d’une protection et forcent le gouvernement à lutter contre l’impunité.

Análisis de las implicaciones del accionar terrorista, en las iniciativas de contraterrorismo de la Unión Europea, después del 11 de septiembre de 2001 hasta 2008, a la luz de los conceptos de la Geopolítica contemporánea. Estudio de caso: Estrategias de España y Francia frente a ETA

A lo largo de la historia el terrorismo con sus diversas manifestaciones ha llevado a que éste se convierta en un factor común, sin dejar de ser complejo, en los escenarios geográficos en los que el fenómeno se ha venido desarrollando. Pensamientos variados y cambiantes han permitido que el terrorismo adquiera diferentes matices dependiendo de la época, el territorio y la población directa a la cual se enfrenta y por supuesto a las Instituciones y demás regiones y habitantes de las mismas que resultan afectadas por su impacto. En este trabajo se consideran datos importantes de ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna) para el análisis ya que ha sido desde su nacimiento uno de los principales factores que han desestabilizado las relaciones geopolíticas de los países implicados en el tema.