Hacia el diseño óptimo de un plan de gestión de presiones en redes de distribución de agua urbana

La gestión de presiones en las redes de distribución de agua urbana, a pesar de tratarse de una operación habitual y de suma importancia para la explotación de este tipo de infraestructuras, carece hoy día de una metodología generalizable. Así, su instauración y posterior control generalmente vienen determinados por un diseño particularizado para cada caso y basado en la experiencia de la empresa operadora y los ingenieros correspondientes. La presente investigación propone, a partir de un estudio cualitativo de estructura propia, fundamentado en el análisis y estudio comparativo de casos, una metodología integral de implantación aplicable al conjunto de este tipo de sistemas. La elaboración de esta metodología se basa en la selección y propuesta de una serie de indicadores tanto de diseño de los factores más importantes a considerar, como de control de resultados de acuerdo a las diferentes finalidades a alcanzar. Asimismo se ha establecido una categorización de los tipos de regulación más convenientes para cada sistema según las distintas finalidades para las que ha podido ser diseñada la operación de gestión de presiones

The water footprint of olives and olive oil in Spain

This paper evaluates the water footprint of Spanish olives and olive oil over the period 1997-2008. In particular, it analyses the three colour components of the water footprint: green (rainwater stored in the soil), blue (surface and groundwater) and grey (freshwater required to assimilate load of pollutants). Apparent water productivity and virtual water embedded in olive oil exports have also been studied. Results show more than 99.5% of the water footprint of one liter of bottled olive oil is related to the olive production, whereas less than 0.5% is due to the other components such as bottle, cap and label. Over the studied period, the green water footprint in absolute terms of Spanish olive oil production represents about 72% in rainfed systems and just 12% in irrigated olive orchards. Blue and grey water footprints represent 6% and 10% of the national water footprint, respectively. It is shown that olive production is concentrated in regions with the smallest water footprint per unit of product. However, the increase of groundwater consumption in the main olive producing region (Andalusia), from 98 to 378 Mm3 between 1997 and 2008, has added significant pressure in the upstream Guadalquivir basin. This raises questions about the sustainability of irrigated olive orchards for export from the region. Finally, the virtual water related to olive oil exports illustrate the importance of green water footprint of rainfed olives amounting to about 77% of the total virtual water exports.

Agua y Globalización: Retos y oportunidades para una mejor gestión de los recursos hídricos

La mayoría de los estudios coinciden en que hoy en día en el mundo hay suficientes recursos hídricos para satisfacer la demanda de alimentos, aunque con disponibilidad geográfica desigual. La crisis del agua se trata de un problema de mala gestión en relación con varios aspectos (Aldaya et al, 2008; Rogers et ai, 2006; UNDP, 2006; CAWMA, 2007). En este contexto, la globalización de los mercados, que redistribuye los recursos hídricos por medio del comercio de agua virtual, presenta retos y oportunidades para alcanzar una buena gobernanza del agua.

Integrated economic-hydrologic analysis of policy responses

Water is a vital resource, but also a critical limiting factor for economic and social development in many parts of the world. The recent rapid growth in human population and water use for social and economic development is increasing the pressure on water resources and the environment, as well as leading to growing conflicts among competing water use sectors (agriculture, urban, tourism, industry) and regions (Gleick et al., 2009; World Bank, 2006). In Spain, as in many other arid and semi-arid regions affected by drought and wide climate variability, irrigated agriculture is responsible for most consumptive water use and plays an important role in sustaining rural livelihoods (Varela-Ortega, 2007). Historically, the evolution of irrigation has been based on publicly-funded irrigation development plans that promoted economic growth and improved the socio-economic conditions of rural farmers in agrarian Spain, but increased environmental damage and led to excessive and inefficient exploitation of water resources (Garrido and Llamas, 2010; Varela-Ortega et al., 2010). Currently, water policies in Spain focus on rehabilitating and improving the efficiency of irrigation systems, and are moving from technocratic towards integrated water management strategies driven by the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD).

Participatory modelling to support decision making in water management. A case study in the middle Guadiana basin, Spain.

The objective of this research was the implementation of a participatory process for the development of a tool to support decision making in water management. The process carried out aims at attaining an improved understanding of the water system and an encouragement of the exchange of knowledge and views between stakeholders to build a shared vision of the system. In addition, the process intends to identify impacts of possible solutions to given problems, which will help to take decisions.

Metodología de evaluación de las reglas de operación de embalses en avenidas

El avance de la presión antrópica sobre las márgenes de los cauces, y la creciente dificultad técnica, política y social para ejecutar nuevos proyectos de grandes presas, promueve la necesidad de utilizar más eficientemente los sistemas de control de avenidas existentes. En el presente trabajo se presenta una metodología de análisis para evaluar y comparar las estrategias de gestión de embalses, considerando su operación individual, a fin de establecer la más adecuada. En particular se comparan dos modos de gestión ante situación de avenidas: el Método de Evaluación Volumétrica (MEV) desarrollado por Girón (1988), de amplia difusión en España, y un modelo de optimización de la gestión mediante Programación Lineal Entera Mixta (PLEM). Para ello se ha implementado un entorno de cálculo con estructura modular. El primer módulo permite generar un conjunto representativo de hidrogramas de entrada a los embalses mediante simulación de Monte Carlo. Luego, dos módulos que funcionan en paralelo simulan la gestión del embalse según las dos estrategias mencionadas (MEV y PLEM). Finalmente, se evalúa el comportamiento de ambas estrategias ante el conjunto de solicitaciones hidrológicas generado. Se propone el empleo del Índice de Riesgo Global (I1), que pondera el resultado de la estrategia de gestión frente a un conjunto de hidrogramas de solicitación. Dicho indicador tiene en cuenta el daño esperado debido a los caudales máximos vertidos y el riesgo para la presa debido a los niveles máximos alcanzados en el embalse. Para ello se analiza la función de distribución de probabilidad de las dos variables (máximo caudal vertido y máximo nivel alcanzado) para la población de hidrogramas analizada. El modelo PLEM se calibra empleando el índice I1. Este mismo índice es utilizado para comparar ambas estrategias, entendiendo como la más adecuada aquella que tenga asociado el menor I1. Este sistema de análisis se aplicó a tres embalses de la cuenca del río Segura, con diferentes características en lo referente al tipo y capacidad de aliviadero, volumen de embalse y de resguardo. En los tres casos se han obtenido mejores resultados con el modelo PLEM que con el modelo MEV, tanto en lo concerniente a caudales máximos vertidos como a los niveles máximos alcanzados, para todo el rango de avenidas analizado. Sin embargo, la diferencia entre ambas estrategias no es muy significativa y el MEV presenta características que lo hacen más adecuado para su empleo en tiempo real

Responses of riparian guilds to flowalterations in a Mediterranean stream

Questions: Do Mediterranean riparian guilds show distinct responses to stream water declines? If observed,which are the most sensitive and resilient guilds and theirmost affected attributes? Location: Tie¿tar river below the Rosarito dam, central-western Spain. Methods: We identified riparian guilds based on key woody species features and species distribution within this Mediterranean river corridor, and evaluated similarity of their responses to long-term flow alteration (i.e. stream water declines since dam construction in 1959). Hierarchical cluster analysis was used to group surveyed vegetation bands according to species composition. The groups were designated as riparian guilds where each vegetation group comprising a guild: (1) contains species sharing similar features (using PCA); and (2) shares a similar environment (using DCA). Changes in several guild attributes (i.e. dominance and species composition, diversity and establishment patterns) during the regulated period were compared statistically. We used pre- and post-dam established vegetation bands identified based on old (1956) and modern (2006) aerial photographs and field measurements of woody species diameter. Results: Responses to flow alterations varied between guilds according to ecological requirements of their species. The ability to survive water stress (i.e. ?Xeric? guilds) and drag forces caused by floods (?Torrential? guilds) allowed certain pioneer shrub-dominated guilds (e.g. Flueggea tinctoria and Salix salviifolia) to spread on newly emerged surfaces downward to the main channel after flow alterations, although new shrubland had less species diversity than pre-dam shrubland. In contrast, new hydromorphological conditions following damming limited recruitment of native late-successional tree guilds sensitive to floods (to drag forces, inundation and anoxia; i.e. ?Slow-water? and ?Flood-sensitive?, respectively) and those with greater water requirements (i.e. ?Hydric?) (e.g. Alnus glutinosa and Celtis australis), although species diversity increased in this mature forest through co-existence of remaining riparian species and new arrival of upland species. Conclusions: Changes in several riparian attributes after flow alterations differed between guilds. Stream water declines after damming caused shifts in species-poor pioneer shrubland downwards to the watered channel, resulting in severe declines ofmaturenative forest.Understanding vegetation guild responses provides information about general trends in plant populations and assemblage structures expected to occur during river development and flow regulation, increasing our capacity to detect and synthesize complex flowalteration?riparian ecosystem response relationships, and anticipate irreversible impacts.

Riparian woodland encroachment following flow regulation: a comparative study of Boreal and Mediterranean streams

Water development accompanying mankind development has turned rivers into endangered ecosystems. Improving the understanding of ecological responses to river management actions is a key issue for assuring sustainable water management. However, few studies have been published where ecological metrics have been quantified in response to various degrees of flow alteration. In this work, changes in natural distribution of trees and shrubs within the riparian corridor (as indicator of the ecological status of the fluvial ecosystem) were quantified at multiple sites along a flow alteration gradient (as indicator of impact) along two regulated river reaches, one Boreal and the other Mediterranean, each downstream of a dam. Based on the obtained relationships we evaluated differences in response trends related to local physico-climatic factors of the two biomes and regarding to differing life-forms. Woody vegetation establishment patterns represented objective indicators of ecological responses to flow alteration. We found different responses between life-forms. Both trees and shrubs migrated downwards to the channel after dam closure, but shrubs were most impacted under higher degrees of flow alteration in terms of lateral movement. In addition, our results show clear longitudinal recovery trends of natural patterns of tree and shrub distribution corresponding to a decrease in intensity of hydrologic alteration in the Boreal river. However, vegetation encroachment persisted along the entire Mediterranean study reach. This may result from a relatively low gradient of decrease of hydrologic alteration with distance from the dam, coupled with other overlapping pressures and the mediating effect of physico-climatic characteristics on vegetation responses.

The natural variability approach. Application to the analysis of the hydrologic alteration in five rivers (Ebro basin, Spain)

Artículo internacional que aplica los criterios de NVA (Natural Variability Approach) a cinco ríos de la cuenca del Ebro

Nonlinear and Scaling Processes in Hydrology and Soil Science

Hydrology is the study of the properties, distribution and effects of water on the Earth?s soil, rocks and atmosphere. It also encompasses the study of the hydrologic cycle of precipitation, runoff, infiltration, storage, and evaporation, including the physical, biological and chemical reaction of water with the earth and its relation to life?.

The Health State of the Cryosphere

The term cryosphere is used to refer to all portions of the Earth surface where water appears in solid form. This includes the snow cover; sea, lake and river ice; glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets; and permafrost. The aim of this contribution is to present the current state of the cryosphere. Emphasis will be given to sea ice and continental ice masses (glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets), and the contribution of the losses from the latter to sea level rise (SLR).

A three-dimensional dynamical model of Amundsenisen icefield, Svalbard.

Amundsenisen is an ice field, 80 km2 in area, located in Southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Radio-echo sounding measurements at 20 MHz show high intensity returns from a nearly flat basal reflector at four zones, all of them with ice thickness larger than 500m. These reflections suggest possible subglacial lakes. To determine whether basal liquid water is compatible with current pressure and temperature conditions, we aim at applying a thermo mechanical model with a free boundary at the bed defined as solution of a Stefan problem for the interface ice-subglaciallake. The complexity of the problem suggests the use of a bi-dimensional model, but this requires that well-defined flowlines across the zones with suspected subglacial lakes are available. We define these flow lines from the solution of a three-dimensional dynamical model, and this is the main goal of the present contribution. We apply a three-dimensional full-Stokes model of glacier dynamics to Amundsenisen icefield. We are mostly interested in the plateau zone of the icefield, so we introduce artificial vertical boundaries at the heads of the main outlet glaciers draining Amundsenisen. At these boundaries we set velocity boundary conditions. Velocities near the centres of the heads of the outlets are known from experimental measurements. The velocities at depth are calculated according to a SIA velocity-depth profile, and those at the rest of the transverse section are computed following Nye’s (1952) model. We select as southeastern boundary of the model domain an ice divide, where we set boundary conditions of zero horizontal velocities and zero vertical shear stresses. The upper boundary is a traction-free boundary. For the basal boundary conditions, on the zones of suspected subglacial lakes we set free-slip boundary conditions, while for the rest of the basal boundary we use a friction law linking the sliding velocity to the basal shear stress,in such a way that, contrary to the shallow ice approximation, the basal shear stress is not equal to the basal driving stress but rather part of the solution.

Latin American Agricultural Trade: The Role of the WTO in Sustainable Virtual Water Flows, European Association of Agricultural Economists

International agricultural trade has been growing significantly during the last decade. Many countries rely on imports to ensure adequate food supplies to the people. A few are becoming food baskets of the world. This process raises issues about the food security in depending countries and potentially unsustainable land and water use in exporting countries. In this paper, we analyse the impacts of amplified farm trade on natural resources, especially water. Farm exports and imports of five Latin America countries (Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Peru and Chile) are examined carefully. A preliminary analysis indicates that virtual water imports can save valuable water resources in water-short countries, such as Mexico and Chile. Major exporting countries, including Brazil and Argentina, have become big exporters due to abundant natural resource endowments. The opportunity costs of agricultural production in those countries are identified as being low, because of the predominant green water use. It is concluded that virtual water trade can be a powerful tool to alleviate water stress in semi-arid countries. However, for exporting nations a sustainable water use can only be guaranteed if environmental production costs are fully reflected in the commodity prices. There is no basis for erecting environmental trade tariffs on exporters though. Setting up legal foundations for them in full compliance with WTOs processes would be a daunting task.

Pond head level control in a run-of-river hydro power plant using fuzzy controller

The run-of-river hydro power plant usually have low or nil water storage capacity, and therefore an adequate control strategy is required to keep the water level constant in pond. This paper presents a novel technique based on TSK fuzzy controller to maintain the pond head constant. The performance is investigated over a wide range of hill curve of hydro turbine. The results are compared with PI controller as discussed in [1].

Ordenación agrohidrológica de la cuenca del Etang Pouillet Departamento del Sudeste Haití.

La cuenca del “Etang Pouillet” (Departamento del Sudeste, Haití), presenta unas tasas de erosión muy elevadas debido a la deforestación y a la práctica de la agricultura sin técnicas de conservación de suelos, lo que constituye un grave problema desde el punto de vista medioambiental y social, ya que la pérdida de productividad del suelo pone en peligro la seguridad alimentaria de los habitantes de la cuenca, mayoritariamente agricultores. Para la evaluación de las tasas de pérdidas de suelo se ha utilizado la metodología propuesta por la Ecuación Universal de Pérdidas de Suelo, U.S.L.E. (Universal Soil Loss Equation). Dicha evaluación estima pérdidas de suelo calificadas de altas (50 – 200 t ha/año) o muy altas (> 200 t ha/año) en casi el 90% de la superficie de la cuenca. Debido a las altas tasas de pérdidas de suelo, se propone una intervención integral de la cuenca. En dicha intervención se combinarán actuaciones técnicas de conservación de suelos para frenar la degradación del mismo y se incidirá en el trabajo con las comunidades para mitigar el impacto que realizan sobre el medio y asegurar una mayor durabilidad de las actuaciones correctoras.