Das disposições cosmopolitas à mobilidade como competência? Ensino superior, Programa Erasmus e mobilidade estudantil

Tradicionalmente, a promoção de disposições cosmopolitas tem sido um importante elemento formativo das elites portuguesas e, simultaneamente, um ingrediente diferenciador, num contexto de baixas taxas de escolarização da população. Após três décadas de intensa democratização da educação e de ampla generalização da experiência escolar, a situação mudou significativamente. Com a tendencial globalização das políticas educativas, a intensificação de acordos e parcerias inter-governamentais oferecem-se aos jovens estudantes novas oportunidades educativas, nomeadamente experiências escolares internacionais. O programa europeu de mobilidade estudantil Erasmus constitui, a este respeito, um exemplo particularmente pertinente. Poder-se-á então continuar a falar de cosmopolitismo como propriedade educativa restrita a um grupo social? Ou, pelo contrário, essa propriedade tende a generalizar-se em sociedades altamente escolarizadas? Por sua vez, as disposições cosmopolitas como elemento formativo parecem ter mudado de significado: será que a mobilidade que suporta a experiência cosmopolita se transforma em competência?

Long-Term Trends of HIV Type 1 Drug Resistance Prevalence among Antiretroviral Treatment-Experienced Patients in Switzerland.

Background. Accurate quantification of the prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) drug resistance in patients who are receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) is difficult, and results from previous studies vary. We attempted to assess the prevalence and dynamics of resistance in a highly representative patient cohort from Switzerland. Methods. On the basis of genotypic resistance test results and clinical data, we grouped patients according to their risk of harboring resistant viruses. Estimates of resistance prevalence were calculated on the basis of either the proportion of individuals with a virologic failure or confirmed drug resistance (lower estimate) or the frequency-weighted average of risk group-specific probabilities for the presence of drug resistance mutations (upper estimate). Results. Lower and upper estimates of drug resistance prevalence in 8064 ART-exposed patients were 50% and 57% in 1999 and 37% and 45% in 2007, respectively. This decrease was driven by 2 mechanisms: loss to follow-up or death of high-risk patients exposed to mono- or dual-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor therapy (lower estimates range from 72% to 75%) and continued enrollment of low-risk patients who were taking combination ART containing boosted protease inhibitors or nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors as first-line therapy (lower estimates range from 7% to 12%). A subset of 4184 participants (52%) had 1 study visit per year during 2002-2007. In this subset, lower and upper estimates increased from 45% to 49% and from 52% to 55%, respectively. Yearly increases in prevalence were becoming smaller in later years. Conclusions. Contrary to earlier predictions, in situations of free access to drugs, close monitoring, and rapid introduction of new potent therapies, the emergence of drug-resistant viruses can be minimized at the population level. Moreover, this study demonstrates the necessity of interpreting time trends in the context of evolving cohort populations.

Morbidity and aging in HIV-infected persons: the Swiss HIV cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Patterns of morbidity and mortality among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals taking antiretroviral therapy are changing as a result of immune reconstitution and improved survival. We studied the influence of aging on the epidemiology of non-AIDS diseases in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. METHODS: The Swiss HIV Cohort Study is a prospective observational cohort established in 1988 with continuous enrollment. We determined the incidence of clinical events (per 1000 person-years) from January 2008 (when a new questionnaire on non-AIDS-related morbidity was introduced) through December 2010. Differences across age groups were analyzed using Cox regression, adjusted for CD4 cell count, viral load, sex, injection drug use, smoking, and years of HIV infection. RESULTS: Overall, 8444 (96%) of 8848 participants contributed data from 40,720 semiannual visits; 2233 individuals (26.4%) were aged 50-64 years, and 450 (5.3%) were aged ≥65 years. The median duration of HIV infection was 15.4 years (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.59-22.0 years); 23.2% had prior clinical AIDS. We observed 994 incident non-AIDS events in the reference period: 201 cases of bacterial pneumonia, 55 myocardial infarctions, 39 strokes, 70 cases of diabetes mellitus, 123 trauma-associated fractures, 37 fractures without adequate trauma, and 115 non-AIDS malignancies. Multivariable hazard ratios for stroke (17.7; CI, 7.06-44.5), myocardial infarction (5.89; 95% CI, 2.17-16.0), diabetes mellitus (3.75; 95% CI, 1.80-7.85), bone fractures without adequate trauma (10.5; 95% CI, 3.58-30.5), osteoporosis (9.13; 95% CI, 4.10-20.3), and non-AIDS-defining malignancies (6.88; 95% CI, 3.89-12.2) were elevated for persons aged ≥65 years. CONCLUSIONS: Comorbidity and multimorbidity because of non-AIDS diseases, particularly diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, non-AIDS-defining malignancies, and osteoporosis, become more important in care of HIV-infected persons and increase with older age.

Residual antimalarials in malaria patients from Tanzania--implications on drug efficacy assessment and spread of parasite resistance.

Repeated antimalarial treatment for febrile episodes and self-treatment are common in malaria-endemic areas. The intake of antimalarials prior to participating in an in vivo study may alter treatment outcome and affect the interpretation of both efficacy and safety outcomes. We report the findings from baseline plasma sampling of malaria patients prior to inclusion into an in vivo study in Tanzania and discuss the implications of residual concentrations of antimalarials in this setting. In an in vivo study conducted in a rural area of Tanzania in 2008, baseline plasma samples from patients reporting no antimalarial intake within the last 28 days were screened for the presence of 14 antimalarials (parent drugs or metabolites) using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Among the 148 patients enrolled, 110 (74.3%) had at least one antimalarial in their plasma: 80 (54.1%) had lumefantrine above the lower limit of calibration (LLC = 4 ng/mL), 7 (4.7%) desbutyl-lumefantrine (4 ng/mL), 77 (52.0%) sulfadoxine (0.5 ng/mL), 15 (10.1%) pyrimethamine (0.5 ng/mL), 16 (10.8%) quinine (2.5 ng/mL) and none chloroquine (2.5 ng/mL). The proportion of patients with detectable antimalarial drug levels prior to enrollment into the study is worrying. Indeed artemether-lumefantrine was supposed to be available only at government health facilities. Although sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine is only recommended for intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp), it was still widely used in public and private health facilities and sold in drug shops. Self-reporting of previous drug intake is unreliable and thus screening for the presence of antimalarial drug levels should be considered in future in vivo studies to allow for accurate assessment of treatment outcome. Furthermore, persisting sub-therapeutic drug levels of antimalarials in a population could promote the spread of drug resistance. The knowledge on drug pressure in a given population is important to monitor standard treatment policy implementation.

Master Plan Layout

The original Master Plan of 1964 called for the campus to stretch out 1 1/4 miles across the escarpment with arts buildings west of the tower and science buildings to the east. This plan laid out the development of Brock for the next 10 or 11 years by which time enrollment was expected to be near 8000 students.

Tower and Pedestrian Mall

The original Master Plan of 1964 called for the campus to stretch out 1 1/4 miles across the escarpment with arts buildings west of the tower and science buildings to the east. This plan laid out the development of Brock for the next 10 or 11 years by which time enrollment was expected to be near 8000 students. Pictured here is the tower and university centre. The view is looking east towards a cluster of science buildings and residences in the background.

Amphitheatre and Tower

The original Master Plan of 1964 called for the campus to stretch out 1 1/4 miles across the escarpment with arts buildings west of the tower and science buildings to the east. This plan laid out the development of Brock for the next 10 or 11 years by which time enrollment was expected to be near 8000 students. Pictured here is the tower and behind it, in the lower left portion of the picture, the planned outdoor amphitheatre. This view is from the edge of the escarpment facing southward or southeast.

Brock University Tower

The original Master Plan of 1964 called for the campus to stretch out 1 1/4 miles across the escarpment with arts buildings west of the tower and science buildings to the east. This plan laid out the development of Brock for the next 10 or 11 years by which time enrollment was expected to be near 8000 students. Pictured here is the tower and main entrance to the university. To the left is a planned administration building. The original plans also called for a miniature canal running between the boulevard at the entrance which would then pass through an underground system and open up into a waterfall at the brink of the escarpment behind the tower.

Exploring the potential of early identification and intervention within a college of applied arts

This study probed for an answer to the question, "How do you identify as early as possible those students who are at risk of failing or dropping out of college so that intervention can take place?" by field testing two diagnostic instruments with a group of first semester Seneca College Computer Studies students. In some respects, the research approach was such as might be taken in a pilot study. Because of the complexity of the issue, this study did not attempt to go beyond discovery, understanding and description. Although some inferences may be drawn from the results of the study, no attempt was made to establish any causal relationship between or among the factors or variables represented here. Both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered during. four resea~ch phases: background, early identification, intervention, and evaluation. To gain a better understanding of the problem of student attrition within the School of Computer Studies at Seneca College, several methods were used, including retrospective analysis of enrollment statistics, faculty and student interviews and questionnaires, and tracking of the sample population. The significance of the problem was confirmed by the results of this study. The findings further confirmed the importance of the role of faculty in student retention and support the need to improve the quality of teacher/student interaction. As well, the need __f or ~~ills as~e:ss_~ent foll,,-~ed }JY supportiv e_c_ounsell~_I'l9_ ~~d_ __ placement was supported by the findings from this study. strategies for reducing student attrition were identified by faculty and students. As part of this study, a project referred to as "A Student Alert project" (ASAP) was undertaken at the School of Computer Studies at Seneca College. Two commercial diagnostic instruments, the Noel/Levitz College Student Inventory (CSI) and the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI), provided quantitative data which were subsequently analyzed in Phase 4 in order to assess their usefulness as early identification tools. The findings show some support for using these instruments in a two-stage approach to early identification and intervention: the CSI as an early identification instrument and the LASSI as a counselling tool for those students who have been identified as being at risk. The findings from the preliminary attempts at intervention confirmed the need for a structured student advisement program where faculty are selected, trained, and recognized for their advisor role. Based on the finding that very few students acted on the diagnostic results and recommendations, the need for institutional intervention by way of intrusive measures was confirmed.

The self-management approach of health education in the treatment of chronic illnesses

Health education is essential to the successful treatment of individuals with chronic illnesses. Self-management is a philosophical model of health education that has been shown to be effective in teaching individuals with chronic arthritis to manage their illness as part of their daily lives. Despite the proven results of arthritis self-management programs, some limitations of this form of health education were apparent in the literature. The present study attempted to address the problems of the self-management approach of health education such as reasons for lack of participation in programs and poor course outcomes. In addition, the study served to investigate the relationship between course outcomes and participation in programs with the theory upon which arthritis self-management programs are based, known as self-efficacy theory. Through a combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies, data collection, and analysis, a deeper understanding of the self-management phenomenon in the treatment of chronic arthritic conditions was established. Findings of the study confirm findings of previous studies that suggest that arthritis self-management programs result in enhanced levels of self-efficacy and are effective in teaching individuals with arthritis to self-manage their health and health care. Findings of the study suggest that there are many factors that determine the choice of participants to participate in programs and the outcomes for the individuals who do choose to participate in programs. Some of the major determinants of enrollment and outcomes of programs include: the participant's personality, beliefs, attitudes and abilities, and the degree of emotional acceptance of the illness. Other determinants of course enrollment and outcomes included class size and length of time, timing of participation, and ongoing support after the program. The results of the study are consistent with the self-management literature and confirm the relationship between the underlying philosophies of adult education and Freire's model of education and self-management.

Exploring the potential of early identification and intervention within a college of applied arts

This study probed for an answer to the question, "How do you identify as early as possible those students who are at risk of failing or dropping out of college so that intervention can take place?" by field testing two diagnostic instruments with a group of first semester Seneca College Computer ,Studies students. In some respects, the research approach was such as might be taken in a pilot study_ Because of the complexity of the issue, this study did not attempt to go beyond discovery, understanding and description. Although some inferences may be drawn from the results of the study, no attempt was made to establish any causal relationship between or among the factors or variables represented here. Both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered during four resea~ch phases: background, early identification, intervention, and evaluation. To gain a better understanding of the problem of student attrition within the School of Computer Studies at Seneca College, several methods were used, including retrospective analysis of enrollment statistics, faculty and student interviews and questionnaires, and tracking of the sample population. The significance of the problem was confirmed by the results of this study. The findings further confirmed the importance of the role of faculty in student retention and support the need to improve the quality of teacher/student interaction. As well, the need for skills assessmen~-followed by supportive counselling, and placement was supported by the findings from this study. strategies for reducing student attrition were identified by faculty and students. As part of this study, a project referred to as "A Student Alert Project" (ASAP) was undertaken at the School of Computer Studies at Seneca college. Two commercial diagnostic instruments, the Noel/Levitz College Student Inventory (CSI) and the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI), provided quantitative data which were subsequently analyzed in Phase 4 in order to assess their usefulness as early identification tools. The findings show some support for using these instruments in a two-stage approach to early identification and intervention: the CSI as an early identification instrument and the LASSI as a counselling tool for those students who have been identified as being at risk. The findings from the preliminary attempts at intervention confirmed the need for a structured student advisement program where faculty are selected, trained, and recognized for their advisor role. Based on the finding that very few students acted on the diagnostic results and recommendations, the need for institutional intervention by way of intrusive measures was confirmed.

Teacher-Student Rapport: Investigating its Impact on the Dropout Rate in Physical and Health Education

This study was an investigation into whether strong teacher-student rapport relates to the drop-out rates of students in grade 9 and 10 health and physical education (HPE). In the study, One hundred and thirty-six grade 9 students from five high schools in Ontario participated in this study. Findings of whether or not rapport related to students’ decision to take an additional HPE credit beyond grade 9 did not prove conclusive. A significant multivariate interaction effect was not found; however, tests of between-subject effects on sex and grade 10 dropouts showed some interesting trends. More research is needed to further illuminate the link between teacher-student rapport and students’ enrollment in optional HPE classes.

Évaluation d'un programme de formation en administration des services de soins infirmiers : le cas du Sénégal

Partout dans le monde, la formation en gestion des cadres infirmiers est devenue une nécessité. Afin de doter la profession infirmière de chefs de file capables de faire face aux changements, plusieurs pays ont conçu des programmes de formation de deuxième cycle en administration des services de soins infirmiers. Plusieurs programmes sont développés en ce sens dont peu ou prou sont évalués. Plusieurs auteurs croient que l’évaluation de ces programmes permettrait de mieux apprécier l’atteinte des objectifs pédagogiques et ultérieurement, d’améliorer la formation et les pratiques de gestion. Afin de contribuer à ce projet, la présente étude vise à évaluer le programme de formation Administration et enseignement de l'École nationale de développement sanitaire et social (ENDSS) du Sénégal. Cette évaluation prend en compte les points de vue des diplômés, des enseignants, des concepteurs du programme et des directions d’hôpitaux. Il s’agit d’une recherche évaluative de type rétrospectif. Une enquête par questionnaire et par entrevue a été réalisée auprès des diplômés, des enseignants, des concepteurs de programme et des directions d'hôpitaux. Également, des bases de données sur les étudiants finissants entre les années 2003 et 2009 ont été consultées pour recueillir les notes obtenues à l’examen de certification, les effectifs d’admission et d’inscrits et les renseignements sociodémographiques. Cette évaluation porte sur les principales composantes du programme de formation Administration et enseignement de l’ENDSS qui sont examinées à l’aide du modèle systémique d’évaluation de programme éducatif de Stufflebeam (1981) communément appelé modèle CIPP. Les résultats de l’analyse s’appuient sur 70 questionnaires et 37 entrevues. En vue de répondre aux questions de recherche, les données recueillies sont analysées et interprétées à partir d’indicateurs et selon des critères définis. La démarche d’analyse des résultats s’est effectuée en deux étapes. D'abord, les données des questionnaires et des entrevues fournies par les diplômés, les enseignants et les concepteurs ont été analysées ainsi que celles du dossier scolaire des étudiants inscrits au programme. Ensuite, l’examen a porté sur les données des questionnaires recueillies auprès des directions d’hôpitaux. Les avis de tous les répondants sur les améliorations à apporter au programme sont analysés pour rendre compte de leurs recommandations à ce sujet. Tout au long de l’analyse des résultats, les données des questionnaires et des entrevues sont présentées à la fois. Le jugement sur l’efficacité du programme de formation Administration et enseignement de l’ENDSS est établi par l’analyse d’indicateurs reliés aux quatre types d'évaluation proposés par Stufflebeam (1981). Les diplômés et les concepteurs jugent que la formation est adéquate pour l’exercice de la fonction de chef de services des soins infirmiers. Par contre, les enseignants sont très partagés sur cette question, puisque près de la moitié d'entre eux expriment un avis favorable tandis que les autres ont une opinion contraire. Les diplômés apparaissent très partagés par rapport à la cohérence apparente entre les objectifs de stage d’administration hospitalière et les compétences à développer, alors que les enseignants et les concepteurs expriment plus largement une opinion négative. La cohérence entre les notions du module de Management des services de santé et l’exercice de la fonction de chef de services des soins infirmiers est jugée plus forte en ce qui concerne plusieurs notions, par les diplômés, les enseignants et les concepteurs. La majorité des diplômés et des enseignants jugent que la supervision offerte aux étudiants est insatisfaisante. Les diplômés et les enseignants croient que la disponibilité des ressources didactiques à la bibliothèque ne facilite pas les apprentissages. Tandis que les concepteurs, en proportion plus élevée, expriment le même jugement. Les diplômés et les enseignants sont divisés sur la question de l’équilibre entre le nombre d’heures alloué à la théorie et à la formation pratique. Tandis que la majorité des concepteurs croient qu’il n’y a pas d'équilibre entre le nombre d'heures consacré aux cours et à la formation pratique. Les diplômés et les enseignants expriment une opinion très positive sur la qualité des rapports sociaux des étudiants entre eux, avec les enseignants et le personnel administratif. Tandis que les concepteurs ont une opinion plutôt négative à ce sujet. Les diplômés, de même que les enseignants jugent en majorité, que la supervision des stages offerte aux étudiants est insatisfaisante. Ces opinions convergent avec celles de la grande majorité des concepteurs. Selon les diplômés, le travail de groupe, de même que les études de cas sont les méthodes les plus pertinentes dans la formation de chef de service des soins infirmiers. Pour les enseignants et les concepteurs c'est le travail de groupe qui est la méthode la plus pertinente pour faire acquérir des connaissances. Parmi l’ensemble des inscrits, incluant les étudiants sénégalais et étrangers, 104 d’entre eux ont obtenu un diplôme. Subséquemment, seuls 2 étudiants sur les 106 inscrits au programme ont échoué. Les enseignants, les diplômés et les concepteurs sont tous satisfaits du programme de formation Administration et enseignement de l’ENDSS. Les directions d'hôpitaux sont partagées quant à elles, à l’idée selon laquelle les étudiants sont préparés aux fonctions de chef de service des soins infirmiers. En plus, selon la grande majorité des directions le programme de formation ne répond pas à la stratégie de la réforme hospitalière. Elles affirment à l’unanimité qu’elles n’ont pas été associées au processus d’élaboration du programme et sont d’accord que, de manière générale, la formation reçue par le chef de services des soins infirmiers est de qualité. Unanimement, les directions d’hôpitaux jugent que des notions devraient être ajoutées ou améliorées au programme de formation Administration et enseignement de l’ENDSS. L’interprétation des données révèle la complexité qui entoure l’importance de l’équilibre du volume horaire à consacrer à la théorie et à la pratique dans un programme de formation. En plus, les résultats sur les connaissances à acquérir par les diplômés durant la formation montrent un besoin élevé de perfectionnement voire d’enseignement plus poussé du contenu des notions Système d’information sanitaire et Introduction à l’informatique, Introduction au management; Élaboration de programme et Administration hospitalière. Un choix approprié de terrain où l’étudiant pourrait réaliser les objectifs d’apprentissage, une sélection de la période adéquate pour le stage, de même qu’un encadrement signifiant, seraient le gage d’un stage profitable pour l’étudiant. Nous estimons que cette recherche a ouvert des pistes à des perspectives de recherches reliées au développement professionnel des futurs chefs de service des soins infirmiers. Mots clés : évaluation de programme, acquisition de connaissances, développement des compétences, administration des soins infirmiers, programme de deuxième cycle.

Using Google Analytics to evaluate an email information literacy program for medical and dental students

Objectives: An email information literacy program has been effective for over a decade at Université de Montréal’s Health Library. Students periodically receive messages highlighting the content of guides on the library’s website. We wish to evaluate, using Google Analytics, the effects of the program on specific webpage statistics. Using the data collected, we may pinpoint popular guides as well as others that need improvement. Methods: In the program, first and second-year medical (MD) or dental (DMD) students receive eight bi-monthly email messages. The DMD mailing list also includes graduate students and professors. Enrollment to the program is optional for MDs, but mandatory for DMDs. Google Analytics (GA) profiles have been configured for the libraries websites to collect visitor statistics since June 2009. The GA Links Builder was used to design unique links specifically associated with the originating emails. This approach allowed us to gather information on guide usage, such as the visitor’s program of study, duration of page viewing, number of pages viewed per visit, as well as browsing data. We also followed the evolution of clicks on GA unique links over time, as we believed that users may keep the library's emails and refer to them to access specific information. Results: The proportion of students who actually clicked the email links was, on average, less than 5%. MD and DMD students behaved differently regarding guide views, number of pages visited and length of time on the site. The CINAHL guide was the most visited for DMD students whereas MD students consulted the Pharmaceutical information guide most often. We noted that some students visited referred guides several weeks after receiving messages, thus keeping them for future reference; browsing to additional pages on the library website was also frequent. Conclusion: The mitigated success of the program prompted us to directly survey students on the format, frequency and usefulness of messages. The information gathered from GA links as well as from the survey will allow us to redesign our web content and modify our email information literacy program so that messages are more attractive, timely and useful for students.

Essays in labor and public economics

Dans ma thèse, je me sers de modèles de recherche solides pour répondre à des questions importantes de politique publique. Mon premier chapitre évalue l’impact causal de l’allégeance partisane (républicain ou démocrate) des gouverneurs américains sur le marché du travail. Dans ce chapitre, je combine les élections des gouverneurs avec les données du March CPS pour les années fiscales 1977 à 2008. En utilisant un modèle de régression par discontinuité, je trouve que les gouverneurs démocrates sont associés à de plus faibles revenus individuels moyens. Je mets en évidence que cela est entrainée par un changement dans la composition de la main-d’oeuvre à la suite d’une augmentation de l’emploi des travailleurs à revenus faibles et moyens. Je trouve que les gouverneurs démocrates provoquent une augmentation de l’emploi des noirs et de leurs heures travaillées. Ces résultats conduisent à une réduction de l’écart salarial entre les travailleurs noir et blanc. Mon deuxième chapitre étudie l’impact causal des fusillades qui se produisent dans les écoles secondaires américaines sur les performances des éléves et les résultats des écoles tels que les effectifs et le nombre d’enseignants recruté, a l’aide d’une stratégie de différence-en-différence. Le chapitre est coécrit avec Dongwoo Kim. Nous constatons que les fusillades dans les écoles réduisent significativement l’effectif des élèves de 9e année, la proportion d’élèves ayant un niveau adéquat en anglais et en mathématiques. Nous examinons aussi l’effet hétérogene des tueries dans les écoles secondaires entre les crimes et les suicides. Nous trouvons que les fusillades de natures criminelles provoquent la diminution du nombre d’inscriptions et de la proportion d’élèves adéquats en anglais et mathématiques. En utilisant des données sur les élèves en Californie, nous confirmons qu’une partie de l’effet sur la performance des élèves provient des étudiants inscrits et ce n’est pas uniquement un effet de composition. Mon troisième chapitre étudie l’impact des cellulaires sur la performance scolaire des élèves. Le chapitre est coécrit avec Richard Murphy. Dans ce chapitre, nous combinons une base de données unique contenant les politiques de téléphonie mobile des écoles obtenues à partir d’une enquète auprès des écoles dans quatre villes en Angleterre avec des données administratives sur la performance scolaire des éleves. Nous étudions ainsi l’impact de l’introduction d’une interdiction de téléphonie mobile sur le rendement des éleves. Nos résultats indiquent qu’il y a une augmentation du rendement des éleves après l’instauration de l’interdiction des cellulaires à l’école, ce qui suggère que les téléphones mobiles sont sources de distraction pour l’apprentissage et l’introduction d’une interdiction à l’école limite ce problème.