Commodity currency: an alternative route to currency union

Proposals have been made for a common currency for East Asia, but the countries preparing to participate need to be in a state of economic convergence. We show that at least six countries of East Asia already satisfy this condition. There also needs to be a mechanism by which the new currency relates to other reserve currencies. We demonstrate that a numéraire could be defined solely from the actual worldwide consumption of food and energy per capita, linked to fiat currencies via world market prices. We show that real resource prices are stable in real terms, and likely to remain so. Furthermore, the link from energy prices to food commodity prices is permanent, arising from energy inputs in agriculture, food processing and distribu-tion. Calibration of currency value using a yardstick such as our SI numéraire offers an unbiased measure of the con-sistently stable cost of subsistence in the face of volatile currency exchange rates. This has the advantage that the par-ticipating countries need only agree to currency governance based on a common standards institution, a much less on-erous form of agreement than would be required in the creation of a common central bank.

Do IMF and World Bank programs induce government crises? an empirical analysis

We examine whether and under what circumstances World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) programs affect the likelihood of major government crises. We find that crises are, on average, more likely as a consequence of World Bank programs. We also find that governments face an increasing risk of entering a crisis when they remain under an IMF or World Bank arrangement once the economy's performance improves. The international financial institution's (IFI) scapegoat function thus seems to lose its value when the need for financial support is less urgent. While the probability of a crisis increases when a government turns to the IFIs, programs inherited by preceding governments do not affect the probability of a crisis. This is in line with two interpretations. First, the conclusion of IFI programs can signal the government's incompetence, and second, governments that inherit programs might be less likely to implement program conditions agreed to by their predecessors.

The cross-currency hedging performance of implied versus statistical forecasting models

This article examines the ability of several models to generate optimal hedge ratios. Statistical models employed include univariate and multivariate generalized autoregressive conditionally heteroscedastic (GARCH) models, and exponentially weighted and simple moving averages. The variances of the hedged portfolios derived using these hedge ratios are compared with those based on market expectations implied by the prices of traded options. One-month and three-month hedging horizons are considered for four currency pairs. Overall, it has been found that an exponentially weighted moving-average model leads to lower portfolio variances than any of the GARCH-based, implied or time-invariant approaches.

Agricultural commodity markets : reference point for the real value of a currency

Using monthly time-series data 1999-2013, the paper shows that markets for agricultural commodities provide a yardstick for real purchasing power, and thus a reference point for the real value of fiat currencies. The daily need for each adult to consume about 2800 food calories is universal; data from FAO food balance sheets confirm that the world basket of food consumed daily is non-volatile in comparison to the volatility of currency exchange rates, and so the replacement cost of food consumed provides a consistent indicator of economic value. Food commodities are storable for short periods, but ultimately perishable, and this exerts continual pressure for markets to clear in the short term; moreover, food calories can be obtained from a very large range of foodstuffs, and so most households are able to use arbitrage to select a near optimal weighting of quantities purchased. The paper proposes an original method to enable a standard of value to be established, definable in physical units on the basis of actual worldwide consumption of food goods, with an illustration of the method.

Economic crises in England, 1270-1520: a statistical approach

The chapter examines how far medieval economic crises can be identified by analysing the residuals from a simultaneous equation model of the medieval English economy. High inflation, falls in gross domestic product and large intermittent changes in wage rates are all considered as potential indicators of crisis. Potential causal factors include bad harvests, wars and political instability. The chapter suggests that crises arose when a combination of different problems overwhelmed the capacity of government to address them. It may therefore be a mistake to look for a single cause of any crisis. The coincidence of separate problems is a more plausible explanation of many crises.

Breaching the social contract: crises of democratic representation and patterns of extreme right party support

Why has the extreme right Greek Golden Dawn, a party with clear links to fascism experienced a rise defying all theories that claim that such a party is unlikely to win in post-WWII Europe? And, if we accept that economic crisis is an explanation for this, why has such a phenomenon not occurred in other countries that have similar conducive conditions, such as Portugal and Spain? This article addresses this puzzle by (a) carrying out a controlled comparison of Greece, Portugal and Spain and (b) showing that the rise of the extreme right is not a question of intensity of economic crisis. Rather it is the nature of the crisis, i.e. economic versus overall crisis of democratic representation that facilitates the rise of the extreme right. We argue that extreme right parties are more likely to experience an increase in their support when economic crisis culminates into an overall crisis of democratic representation. Economic crisis is likely to become a political crisis when severe issues of governability impact upon the ability of the state to fulfil its social contract obligations. This breach of the social contract is accompanied by declining levels of trust in state institutions, resulting in party system collapse.

Efeitos de crises crônicas e agudas induzidas por pentilenotetrazol sobre a hidrólise de nucleotídeos púricos em soro de ratos adultos

A adenosina tem sido descrita como tendo importante efeito neuromodulatório em SNC, inibindo a liberação de neurotransmissores excitatórios através da ativação dos receptores A1. Agonistas de receptores A1, bem como adenosina e seus análogos, tem sido descritos como supressores de crises epilépticas. Uma das vias de produção de adenosina é a hidrólise extra-celular completa do ATP envolvendo as enzimas ATP difosfoidrolase (CD39) e 5’-nucleotidase (CD73). Embora esta associação enzimática já esteja bem descrita, o envolvimento da enzima fosfodiesterase não pode ser descartado, uma vez que esta hidrolisa nucleotídeos como ATP e ADP, além de outros substratos. Recentemente, foi demonstrado em nosso laboratório um aumento das atividades ATP difosfoidrolase e 5’-nucleotidase em sinaptossomas de ratos após a indução de 2 diferentes modelos de epilepsia de lobo temporal. Neste trabalho, nós investigamos o efeito de crises agudas e crônicas induzidas pelo agente pró-convulsivante pentilenotetrazol (PTZ) sobre a hidrólise dos nucleotídeos ATP, ADP e AMP em soro de ratos, uma vez que formas solúveis de nucleotidases já estão descritas. No modelo agudo os animais receberam apenas 1 injeção de PTZ ou salina, sendo mortos por decapitação em diferentes tempos após a injeção da droga. A hidrólise dos nucleotídeos ATP, ADP e AMP apresentaram aumento significativo de 40 –50% nos ratos tratados em relação aos ratos controle até 24 após a última injeção. Em 48 horas, este efeito foi abolido. Já, a hidrólise do substrato artificial p-Nph-5’-TMP usado como marcador para a fosfodiesterase, não apresentou nenhum aumento significativo em ratos tratados quando comparado aos animais controle. No modelo crônico (kindling), os animais recebiam doses inicialmente subconvulsivantes que resultam em crises progressivamente mais intensas ao longo das subseqüentes estimulações. Para descartar o efeito da injeção aguda, os ratos foram mortos 48 horas após a última estimulação. Com exceção do substrato artificial para a fosfodiesterase, a hidrólise dos nucleotídeos testados aumentou de maneira significativa (cerca de 40% - 45%) em soro de ratos submetidos ao modelo de kindling. Estes resultados demonstram o envolvimento de nucleotidases solúveis no controle dos níveis do neurotransmissor ATP e do neuromodulador adenosina, sendo estas respostas presentes tanto em situações patológicas agudas, como em situações patológicas crônicas que envolvem o fenômeno de plasticidade sináptica.

Taxa de câmbio : um estudo sobre os determinantes, taxa de câmbio real e efetiva e crises cambiais

O mundo atravessa uma fase de incertezas sobre o câmbio. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma revisão bibliográfica sobre o assunto, trazendo os modelos que tentam elucidar como se forma a taxa de câmbio no curto e longo prazo. Serão tratados os motivos que levaram o Brasil a abandonar a política de bandas cambiais em 1999 e quais as medidas tomadas pelas autoridades econômicas, bem como o impacto destas sobre a economia. Ao longo dessa análise será calculada a taxa de câmbio real e real efetiva mensalmente com data base julho de 1994, permitindo visualizar as fases de apreciação e depreciação do câmbio. Encerrando o capítulo uma revisão teórica do impacto das políticas monetária e fiscal sobre o câmbio à luz dos diferentes regimes cambiais existentes. Finalmente, uma revisão dos fatos que levaram às crises cambiais no México, Tailândia, Malásia, Indonésia, Coréia do Sul, Rússia e Argentina, analisando os principais indicadores macroeconômicos destas economias tentando encontrar elementos comuns que permitam entender os motivos das crises.

The trasition from fixed to floating exchange rate regimes: the case of Brazil

This dissertation evaluates macroeconomic management in Brazil from 1994 to the present, with particular focus on exchange rate policy. It points out that while Brazil's Real Plan succeeded in halting the hyperinflation that had reached more than 2000 percent in 1993, it also caused significant real appreciation of the exchange rate situation that was only made worse by the extremely high interest rates and ensuing bout of severe financial crises in the intemational arena. By the end of 1998, the accumulation of internai and externai imbalances led the authorities to drop foreign exchange controls and allow the currency to float. In spite of some initial scepticism, the flexible rate regime cum inflation target proved to work well. Inflation was kept under control; the current account position improved significantly, real interest rates fell and GDP growth resumed. Thus, while great challenges still lie ahead, the recent successes bestow some optimism on the well functioning of this exchange rate regime. The Brazilian case suggests that successful transition from one foreign exchange system to another, particularly during financial crisis, does not depend only on one variable be it fiscal or monetary. In reality, it depends on whole set of co-ordinated policies aimed at resuming price stability with as little exchange rate and output volatility as possible.

Inflation targeting, credibility and confidence crises

We study the interplay between the central bank transparency, its credibility, and the ination target level. Based on a model developed in the spirit of the global games literature, we argue that whenever a weak central bank adopts a high degree of transparency and a low target level, a bad and self conrmed type of equilibrium may arise. In this case, an over-the-target ination becomes more likely. The central bank is considered weak when favorable state of nature is required for the target to be achieved. On the other hand, if a weak central bank opts for less ambitious goals, namely lower degree of transparency and higher target level, it may avoid condence crises and ensure a unique equilibrium for the expected ination. Moreover, even after ruling out the possibility of condence crises, less ambitious goals may be desirable in order to attain higher credibility and hence a better coordination of expectations. Conversely, a low target level and a high central bank transparency are desirable whenever the economy has strong fundamentals and the target can be fullled in many states of nature.