Smart structures: sperimentazione mediante attuatori e sensori innovativi

L’idea di base della seguente tesi, finora mai applicata o descritta in letteratura scientifica in base alle ricerche effettuate, è stata quella di creare un sistema di monitoraggio strutturale intelligente (Structural Health Monitoring, SHM) mediante dei sensori di deformazione a reticolo di Bragg (Fiber Bragg Grating, FBG), incollati su fili a memoria di forma inseriti a loro volta, bloccati con opportuni ancoraggi esterni, in sei travi di betoncino cementizio armato. L’obbiettivo della sperimentazione è stato quindi quello di creare delle travi intelligenti che, in condizioni di carico eccezionali e critiche (monitorate dal sensore a fibra ottica), sapessero “autoripararsi” mediante gli attuatori a memoria di forma con un processo di riscaldamento appositamente progettato.

Numerical methods for the dispersion analysis of Guided Waves

The use of guided ultrasonic waves (GUW) has increased considerably in the fields of non-destructive (NDE) testing and structural health monitoring (SHM) due to their ability to perform long range inspections, to probe hidden areas as well as to provide a complete monitoring of the entire waveguide. Guided waves can be fully exploited only once their dispersive properties are known for the given waveguide. In this context, well stated analytical and numerical methods are represented by the Matrix family methods and the Semi Analytical Finite Element (SAFE) methods. However, while the former are limited to simple geometries of finite or infinite extent, the latter can model arbitrary cross-section waveguides of finite domain only. This thesis is aimed at developing three different numerical methods for modelling wave propagation in complex translational invariant systems. First, a classical SAFE formulation for viscoelastic waveguides is extended to account for a three dimensional translational invariant static prestress state. The effect of prestress, residual stress and applied loads on the dispersion properties of the guided waves is shown. Next, a two-and-a-half Boundary Element Method (2.5D BEM) for the dispersion analysis of damped guided waves in waveguides and cavities of arbitrary cross-section is proposed. The attenuation dispersive spectrum due to material damping and geometrical spreading of cavities with arbitrary shape is shown for the first time. Finally, a coupled SAFE-2.5D BEM framework is developed to study the dispersion characteristics of waves in viscoelastic waveguides of arbitrary geometry embedded in infinite solid or liquid media. Dispersion of leaky and non-leaky guided waves in terms of speed and attenuation, as well as the radiated wavefields, can be computed. The results obtained in this thesis can be helpful for the design of both actuation and sensing systems in practical application, as well as to tune experimental setup.

Behaviour and applications of elastic waves in structures and metamaterials

The present thesis focuses on elastic waves behaviour in ordinary structures as well as in acousto-elastic metamaterials via numerical and experimental applications. After a brief introduction on the behaviour of elastic guided waves in the framework of non-destructive evaluation (NDE) and structural health monitoring (SHM) and on the study of elastic waves propagation in acousto-elastic metamaterials, dispersion curves for thin-walled beams and arbitrary cross-section waveguides are extracted via Semi-Analytical Finite Element (SAFE) methods. Thus, a novel strategy tackling signal dispersion to locate defects in irregular waveguides is proposed and numerically validated. Finally, a time-reversal and laser-vibrometry based procedure for impact location is numerically and experimentally tested. In the second part, an introduction and a brief review of the basic definitions necessary to describe acousto-elastic metamaterials is provided. A numerical approach to extract dispersion properties in such structures is highlighted. Afterwards, solid-solid and solid-fluid phononic systems are discussed via numerical applications. In particular, band structures and transmission power spectra are predicted for 1P-2D, 2P-2D and 2P-3D phononic systems. In addition, attenuation bands in the ultrasonic as well as in the sonic frequency regimes are experimentally investigated. In the experimental validation, PZTs in a pitch-catch configuration and laser vibrometric measurements are performed on a PVC phononic plate in the ultrasonic frequency range and sound insulation index is computed for a 2P-3D phononic barrier in the sonic frequency range. In both cases the numerical-experimental results comparison confirms the existence of the numerical predicted band-gaps. Finally, the feasibility of an innovative passive isolation strategy based on giant elastic metamaterials is numerically proved to be practical for civil structures. In particular, attenuation of seismic waves is demonstrated via finite elements analyses. Further, a parametric study shows that depending on the soil properties, such an earthquake-proof barrier could lead to significant reduction of the superstructure displacement.

Desarrollo de aplicaciones de comunicaciones inalámbricas en sistemas de monitorización estructural desarrollados en aeronáutica.

Los Sistemas de SHM o de monitorización de la integridad estructural surgen ante la necesidad de mejorar los métodos de evaluación y de test no destructivos convencionales. De esta manera, se puede tener controlado todo tipo de estructuras en las cuales su correcto estado o funcionamiento suponga un factor crítico. Un Sistema SHM permite analizar una estructura concreta capturando de manera periódica el estado de la integridad estructural, que en este proyecto se ha aplicado a estructuras aeronáuticas. P.A.M.E.L.A. (Phase Array Monitoring for Enhanced Life Assessment) es la denominación utilizada para definir una serie de equipos electrónicos para Sistemas SHM desarrollados por AERNOVA y los Grupos de Diseño Electrónico de las universidades UPV/EHU y UPM. Los dispositivos P.A.M.E.L.A. originalmente no cuentan con tecnología Wi-Fi, por lo que incorporan un módulo hardware independiente que se encarga de las comunicaciones inalámbricas, a los que se les denomina Nodos. Estos Nodos poseen un Sistema Operativo propio y todo lo necesario para administrar y organizar la red Mallada Wi-Fi. De esta manera se obtiene una red mallada inalámbrica compuesta por Nodos que interconectan los Sistemas SHM y que se encargan de transmitir los datos a los equipos que procesan los resultados adquiridos por P.A.M.E.L.A. Los Nodos son dispositivos empotrados que llevan instalados un firmware basado en una distribución de Linux para Nodos (o Routers), llamado Openwrt. Que para disponer de una red mallada necesitan de un protocolo orientado a este tipo de redes. Entre las opciones de protocolo más destacadas se puede mencionar: DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing), B.A.T.M.A.N-Adv (Better Approach To Mobile Adhoc Networking Advance), BMX (una versión de B.A.T.M.A.N-Adv), AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) y el DSR (Dynamic Source Routing). Además de la existencia de protocolos orientados a las redes malladas, también hay organizaciones que se dedican a desarrollar firmware que los utilizan, como es el caso del firmware llamado Nightwing que utiliza BMX, Freifunk que utiliza OLSR o Potato Mesh que utiliza B.A.T.M.A.N-Adv. La ventaja de estos tres firmwares mencionados es que las agrupaciones que las desarrollan proporcionan las imágenes precompiladas del sistema,listas para cargarlas en distintos modelos de Nodos. En este proyecto se han instalado las imágenes en los Nodos y se han probado los protocolos BMX, OLSR y B.A.T.M.A.N.-Adv. Concluyendo que la red gestionada por B.A.T.M.A.N.-Adv era la que mejor rendimiento obtenía en cuanto a estabilidad y ancho de banda. Después de haber definido el protocolo a usar, se procedió a desarrollar una distribución basada en Openwrt, que utilice B.A.T.M.A.N.-Adv para crear la red mallada, pero que se ajuste mejor a las necesidades del proyecto, ya que Nightwing, Freifunk y Potato Mesh no lo hacían. Además se implementan aplicaciones en lenguaje ANSI C y en LabVIEW para interactuar con los Nodos y los Sistemas SHM. También se procede a hacer alguna modificación en el Hardware de P.A.M.E.L.A. y del Nodo para obtener una mejor integración entre los dos dispositivos. Y por ultimo, se prueba la transferencia de datos de los Nodos en distintos escenarios. ABSTRACT. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) systems arise from the need of improving assessment methods and conventional nondestructive tests. Critical structures can be monitored using SHM. A SHM system analyzes periodically a specific structure capturing the state of structural integrity. The aim of this project is to contribute in the implementation of Mesh network for SHM system in aircraft structures. P.A.M.E.L.A. (Phase Array Monitoring for Enhanced Life Assessment) is the name for electronic equipment developed by AERNOVA, the Electronic Design Groups of university UPV/EHU and the Instrumentation and Applied Acoustics research group from UPM. P.A.M.E.L.A. devices were not originally equipped with Wi-Fi interface. In this project a separate hardware module that handles wireless communications (nodes) has been added. The nodes include an operating system for manage the Wi-Fi Mesh Network and they form the wireless mesh network to link SHM systems with monitoring equipment. Nodes are embedded devices with an installed firmware based on special Linux distribution used in routers or nodes, called OpenWRT. They need a Mesh Protocol to stablish the network. The most common protocols options are: DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing), BATMAN-Adv (Better Approach To Mobile Ad-hoc Networking Advance), BMX (a version of BATMAN-Adv) AODV (Ad hoc on-Demand Distance Vector) and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing). In addition, there are organizations that are dedicated to develope firmware using these Mesh Protocols, for instance: Nightwing uses BMX, Freifunk use OLSR and Potato Mesh uses BATMAN-Adv. The advantage of these three firmwares is that these groups develop pre-compiled images of the system ready to be loaded in several models of Nodes. In this project the images were installed in the nodes. In this way, BMX, OLSR and BATMAN-Adv have been tested. We conclude that the protocol BATMAN-Adv has better performance in terms of stability and bandwidth. After choosing the protocol, the objective was to develop a distribution based on OpenWRT, using BATMAN-Adv to create the mesh network. This distribution is fitted to the requirements of this project. Besides, in this project it has been developed applications in C language and LabVIEW to interact with the Nodes and the SHM systems. The project also address some modifications to the PAMELA hardware and the Node, for better integration between both elements. Finally, data transfer tests among the different nodes in different scenarios has been carried out.

A simplified spectral approachfor impedance-based damage identification of frp-strengthened rc beams

Hoy en día, el refuerzo y reparación de estructuras de hormigón armado mediante el pegado de bandas de polímeros reforzados con fibras (FRP) se emplea cada vez con más frecuencia a causa de sus numerosas ventajas. Sin embargo, las vigas reforzadas con esta técnica pueden experimentar un modo de fallo frágil a causa del despegue repentino de la banda de FRP a partir de una fisura intermedia. A pesar de su importancia, el número de trabajos que abordan el estudio de este mecanismo de fallo y su monitorización es muy limitado. Por ello, el desarrollo de metodologías capaces de monitorizar a largo plazo la adherencia de este refuerzo a las estructuras de hormigón e identificar cuándo se inicia el despegue de la banda constituyen un importante desafío a abordar. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es la implementación de una metodología fiable y efectiva, capaz de detectar el despegue de una banda de FRP en una viga de hormigón armado a partir de una fisura intermedia. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha implementado un procedimiento de calibración numérica a partir de ensayos experimentales. Para ello, en primer lugar, se ha desarrollado un modelo numérico unidimensional simple y no costoso representativo del comportamiento de este tipo vigas de hormigón reforzadas con FRP, basado en un modelo de fisura discreta para el hormigón y el método de elementos espectrales. La formación progresiva de fisuras a flexion y el consiguiente despegue en la interface entre el hormigón y el FRP se formulan mediante la introducción de un nuevo elemento capaz de representar ambos fenómenos simultáneamente sin afectar al procedimiento numérico. Además, con el modelo propuesto, se puede obtener de una forma sencilla la respuesta dinámica en altas frecuencias de este tipo de estructuras, lo cual puede hacer muy útil su uso como herramienta de diagnosis y detección del despegue en su fase inicial mediante una monitorización de la variación de las características dinámicas locales de la estructura. Un método de evaluación no destructivo muy prometedor para la monitorización local de las estructuras es el método de la impedancia usando sensores-actuadores piezoeléctricos (PZT). La impedancia eléctrica de los sensores PZT se puede relacionar con la impedancia mecánica de las estructuras donde se encuentran adheridos Ya que la impedancia mecánica de una estructura se verá afectada por su deterioro, se pueden implementar indicadores de daño mediante una comparación del espectro de admitancia (inversa de la impedancia) a lo largo de distintas etapas durante el periodo de servicio de una estructura. Cualquier cambio en el espectro se podría interpretar como una variación en la integridad de la estructura. La impedancia eléctrica se mide a altas frecuencias con lo cual esta metodología debería ser muy sensible a la detección de estados de daño incipiente local, tal como se desea en la aplicación de este trabajo. Se ha implementado un elemento espectral PZT-FRP como extensión del modelo previamente desarrollado, con el objetivo de poder calcular numéricamente la impedancia eléctrica de sensores PZT adheridos a bandas de FRP sobre una viga de hormigón armado. El modelo, combinado con medidas experimentales captadas mediante sensores PZT, se implementa en el marco de una metodología de calibración de modelos para detectar cuantitativamente el despegue en la interfase entre una banda de FRP y una viga de hormigón. El procedimiento de optimización se resuelve empleando el método del enjambre cooperativo con un algoritmo bagging. Los resultados muestran una gran aproximación en la estimación del daño para el problema propuesto. Adicionalmente, se ha desarrollado también un método adaptativo para el mallado de elementos espectrales con el objetivo de localizar las zonas dañadas a partir de los resultados experimentales, el cual contribuye a aumentar la robustez y efectividad del método propuesto a la hora de identificar daños incipientes en su aparición inicial. Finalmente, se ha llevado a cabo un procedimiento de optimización multi-objetivo para detectar el despegue inicial en una viga de hormigón a escala real reforzada con FRP a partir de las impedancias captadas con una red de sensores PZT instrumentada a lo largo de la longitud de la viga. Cada sensor aporta los datos para definir cada una de las funciones objetivo que definen el procedimiento. Combinando el modelo previo de elementos espectrales con un algoritmo PSO multi-objetivo el procedimiento de detección de daño resultante proporciona resultados satisfactorios considerando la escala de la estructura y todas las incertidumbres características ligadas a este proceso. Los resultados obtenidos prueban la viabilidad y capacidad de los métodos antes mencionados y también su potencial en aplicaciones reales. Abstract Nowadays, the external bonding of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plates or sheets is increasingly used for the strengthening and retrofitting of reinforced concrete (RC) structures due to its numerous advantages. However, this kind of strengthening often leads to brittle failure modes being the most dominant failure mode the debonding induced by an intermediate crack (IC). In spite of its importance, the number of studies regarding the IC debonding mechanism and bond health monitoring is very limited. Methodologies able to monitor the long-term efficiency of bonding and successfully identify the initiation of FRP debonding constitute a challenge to be met. The main purpose of this thesisis the implementation of a reliable and effective methodology of damage identification able to detect intermediate crack debonding in FRP-strengthened RC beams. To achieve this goal, a model updating procedure based on numerical simulations and experimental tests has been implemented. For it, firstly, a simple and non-expensive one-dimensional model based on the discrete crack approach for concrete and the spectral element method has been developed. The progressive formation of flexural cracks and subsequent concrete-FRP interfacial debonding is formulated by the introduction of a new element able to represent both phenomena simultaneously without perturbing the numerical procedure. Furthermore, with the proposed model, high frequency dynamic response for these kinds of structures can also be obtained in a very simple and non-expensive way, which makes this procedure very useful as a tool for diagnoses and detection of debonding in its initial stage by monitoring the change in local dynamic characteristics. One very promising active non-destructive evaluation method for local monitoring is impedance-based structural health monitoring(SHM)using piezoelectric ceramic (PZT) sensor-actuators. The electrical impedance of the PZT can be directly related to the mechanical impedance of the host structural component where the PZT transducers are attached. Since the structural mechanical impedance will be affected by the presence of structural damage, comparisons of admittance (inverse of impedance) spectra at various times during the service period of the structure can be used as damage indicator. Any change in the spectra might be an indication of a change in the structural integrity. The electrical impedance is measured at high frequencies with which this methodology appears to be very sensitive to incipient damage in structural systems as desired for our application. Abonded-PZT-FRP spectral beam element approach based on an extension of the previous discrete crack approach is implemented in the calculation of the electrical impedance of the PZT transducer bonded to the FRP plates of a RC beam. This approach in conjunction with the experimental measurements of PZT actuator-sensors mounted on the structure is used to present an updating methodology to quantitatively detect interfacial debonding between a FRP strip and the host RC structure. The updating procedure is solved by using an ensemble particle swarm optimization approach with abagging algorithm, and the results demonstrate a big improvement for the performance and accuracy of the damage detection in the proposed problem. Additionally, an adaptive strategy of spectral element mesh has been also developed to detect damage location with experimental results, which shows the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed method to identify initial and incipient damages at its early stage. Lastly, multi-objective optimization has been carried out to detect debonding damage in a real scale FRP-strengthened RC beam by using impedance signatures. A net of PZT sensors is distributed along the beam to construct impedance-based multiple objectives under gradually induced damage scenario. By combining the spectral element model presented previously and an ensemble multi-objective PSO algorithm, the implemented damage detection process yields satisfactory predictions considering the scale and uncertainties of the structure. The obtained results prove the feasibility and capability of the aforementioned methods and also their potentials in real engineering applications.

A bayesian artificial neural network method to characterise laminar defects using dynamic measurements

This paper reports on the development of an artificial neural network (ANN) method to detect laminar defects following the pattern matching approach utilizing dynamic measurement. Although structural health monitoring (SHM) using ANN has attracted much attention in the last decade, the problem of how to select the optimal class of ANN models has not been investigated in great depth. It turns out that the lack of a rigorous ANN design methodology is one of the main reasons for the delay in the successful application of the promising technique in SHM. In this paper, a Bayesian method is applied in the selection of the optimal class of ANN models for a given set of input/target training data. The ANN design method is demonstrated for the case of the detection and characterisation of laminar defects in carbon fibre-reinforced beams using flexural vibration data for beams with and without non-symmetric delamination damage.

Acoustic emission detection using optical fibre sensors for aerospace applications

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) ensures the structural health and safety of critical structures covering a wide range of application areas. This thesis presents novel, low-cost and good-performance fibre Bragg grating (FBG) based systems for detection of Acoustic Emission (AE) in aircraft structures, which is a part of SHM. Importantly a key aim, during the design of these systems, was to produce systems that were sufficiently small to install in an aircraft for lifetime monitoring. Two important techniques for monitoring high frequency AE that were developed as a part of this research were, Quadrature recombination technique and Active tracking technique. Active tracking technique was used extensively and was further developed to overcome the limitations that were observed while testing it at several test facilities and with different optical fibre sensors. This system was able to eliminate any low frequency spectrum shift due to environmental perturbation and keeps the sensor always working at optimum operation point. This is highly desirable in harsh industrial and operationally active environments. Experimental work carried out in the laboratory has proved that such systems can be used for high frequency detection and have capability to detect up to 600 kHz. However, the range of frequency depends upon the requirement and design of the interrogation system as the system can be altered accordingly for different applications. Several optical fibre configurations for wavelength detection were designed during the course of this work along with industrial partners. Fibre Bragg grating Fabry-Perot (FBG-FP) sensors have shown higher sensitivity and usability than the uniform FBGs to be used with such system. This was shown experimentally. The author is certain that further research will lead to development of a commercially marketable product and the use of active tracking systems can be extended in areas of healthcare, civil infrastructure monitoring etc. where it can be deployed. Finally, the AE detection system has been developed to aerospace requirements and was tested at NDT & Testing Technology test facility based at Airbus, Filton, UK on A350 testing panels.

Étude paramétrique de la propagation d'ondes ultrasonores guidées dans les structures aéronautiques

La mise en oeuvre de systèmes de détection de défauts à même les structures ou infrastructures en génie est le sujet d’étude du Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). Le SHM est une solution efficace à la réduction des coûts associés à la maintenance de structures. Une stratégie prometteuse parmi les technologies émergentes en SHM est fondée sur l’utilisation d’ondes ultrasonores guidées. Ces méthodes sont basées sur le fait que les structures minces agissent comme guides d’ondes pour les ondes ultrasonores. Puisque les structures aéronautiques sont majoritairement minces, les ondes guidées constituent une stratégie pertinente afin d’inspecter de grandes surfaces. Toutefois, les assemblages aéronautiques sont constitués de plusieurs éléments modifiant et compliquant la propagation des ondes guidées dans celles-ci. En effet, la présence de rivets, de raidisseurs, de joints ainsi que la variation de la nature des matériaux utilisés complexifie la propagation des ondes guidées. Pour envisager la mise en oeuvre de systèmes de détection basés sur les ondes guidées, une compréhension des interactions intervenant dans ces diverses structures est nécessaire. Un tel travail entre dans le cadre du projet de collaboration CRIAQ DPHM 501 dont l’objectif principal est de développer une banque de connaissances quant à la propagation d’ondes guidées dans les structures aéronautiques. Le travail de ce mémoire présente d’abord les résultats d’études paramétriques numériques obtenus dans le cadre de ce projet CRIAQ. Puis, afin de faciliter la caractérisation expérimentale de la propagation des ondes guidées, une seconde partie du travail a porté sur le développement d’un absorbant d’ondes guidées. Cet absorbant permet également d’envisager l’extension des régions observables par les systèmes SHM. Ce deuxième volet contribue donc également au projet CRIAQ par l’atténuation de réflexions non désirées dans l’étude menée sur les maintes structures aéronautiques nourrissant la banque de connaissances. La première partie de ce mémoire relève l’état des connaissances de la littérature sur la propagation d’ondes guidées dans les structures aéronautiques. La deuxième partie présente rapidement le formalisme derrière les ondes de Lamb ainsi que les différentes approches analytiques pour caractériser les interactions entre ondes guidées et discontinuités. Par la suite, les outils utilisés pour effectuer les simulations par éléments finis sont présentés et validés par le biais d’une phase expérimentale. La deuxième partie se termine avec la présentation des différentes structures et discontinuités étudiées dans le cadre du projet CRIAQ. Finalement, la troisième et dernière partie de ce mémoire présente les travaux numériques orientés vers la conception d’un absorbant idéal pour ondes guidées. Afin d’y parvenir, une étude paramétrique quant à la forme, les dimensions et les propriétés mécaniques de l’absorbant est entreprise. Enfin, une étude expérimentale permettant de valider les résultats numériques est présentée.

Monitoramento e identificação numérico e experimental de danos em vigas e pontes de aço e concreto utilizando transformadas de wavelet

Tese (doutorado)—Universidade de Brasília, Faculdade de Tecnologia, Departamento de Engenharia Civil e Ambiental, 2015.

Embedded systems and advanced signal processing for Acousto- Ultrasonic Inspections

Non Destructive Testing (NDT) and Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) are becoming essential in many application contexts, e.g. civil, industrial, aerospace etc., to reduce structures maintenance costs and improve safety. Conventional inspection methods typically exploit bulky and expensive instruments and rely on highly demanding signal processing techniques. The pressing need to overcome these limitations is the common thread that guided the work presented in this Thesis. In the first part, a scalable, low-cost and multi-sensors smart sensor network is introduced. The capability of this technology to carry out accurate modal analysis on structures undergoing flexural vibrations has been validated by means of two experimental campaigns. Then, the suitability of low-cost piezoelectric disks in modal analysis has been demonstrated. To enable the use of this kind of sensing technology in such non conventional applications, ad hoc data merging algorithms have been developed. In the second part, instead, imaging algorithms for Lamb waves inspection (namely DMAS and DS-DMAS) have been implemented and validated. Results show that DMAS outperforms the canonical Delay and Sum (DAS) approach in terms of image resolution and contrast. Similarly, DS-DMAS can achieve better results than both DMAS and DAS by suppressing artefacts and noise. To exploit the full potential of these procedures, accurate group velocity estimations are required. Thus, novel wavefield analysis tools that can address the estimation of the dispersion curves from SLDV acquisitions have been investigated. An image segmentation technique (called DRLSE) was exploited in the k-space to draw out the wavenumber profile. The DRLSE method was compared with compressive sensing methods to extract the group and phase velocity information. The validation, performed on three different carbon fibre plates, showed that the proposed solutions can accurately determine the wavenumber and velocities in polar coordinates at multiple excitation frequencies.

PCM-based in-memory computing: architectures, circuits and applications

Analog In-memory Computing (AIMC) has been proposed in the context of Beyond Von Neumann architectures as a valid strategy to reduce internal data transfers energy consumption and latency, and to improve compute efficiency. The aim of AIMC is to perform computations within the memory unit, typically leveraging the physical features of memory devices. Among resistive Non-volatile Memories (NVMs), Phase-change Memory (PCM) has become a promising technology due to its intrinsic capability to store multilevel data. Hence, PCM technology is currently investigated to enhance the possibilities and the applications of AIMC. This thesis aims at exploring the potential of new PCM-based architectures as in-memory computational accelerators. In a first step, a preliminar experimental characterization of PCM devices has been carried out in an AIMC perspective. PCM cells non-idealities, such as time-drift, noise, and non-linearity have been studied to develop a dedicated multilevel programming algorithm. Measurement-based simulations have been then employed to evaluate the feasibility of PCM-based operations in the fields of Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) and Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). Moreover, a first testchip has been designed and tested to evaluate the hardware implementation of Multiply-and-Accumulate (MAC) operations employing PCM cells. This prototype experimentally demonstrates the possibility to reach a 95% MAC accuracy with a circuit-level compensation of cells time drift and non-linearity. Finally, empirical circuit behavior models have been included in simulations to assess the use of this technology in specific DNN applications, and to enhance the potentiality of this innovative computation approach.

Directly training spiking neural networks for cyber-physical systems: from supervised to reinforcement learning

Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) are bio-inspired Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) utilizing discrete spiking signals, akin to neuron communication in the brain, making them ideal for real-time and energy-efficient Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs). This thesis explores their potential in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), leveraging low-cost MEMS accelerometers for early damage detection in motorway bridges. The study focuses on Long Short-Term SNNs (LSNNs), although their complex learning processes pose challenges. Comparing LSNNs with other ANN models and training algorithms for SHM, findings indicate LSNNs' effectiveness in damage identification, comparable to ANNs trained using traditional methods. Additionally, an optimized embedded LSNN implementation demonstrates a 54% reduction in execution time, but with longer pre-processing due to spike-based encoding. Furthermore, SNNs are applied in UAV obstacle avoidance, trained directly using a Reinforcement Learning (RL) algorithm with event-based input from a Dynamic Vision Sensor (DVS). Performance evaluation against Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) highlights SNNs' superior energy efficiency, showing a 6x decrease in energy consumption. The study also investigates embedded SNN implementations' latency and throughput in real-world deployments, emphasizing their potential for energy-efficient monitoring systems. This research contributes to advancing SHM and UAV obstacle avoidance through SNNs' efficient information processing and decision-making capabilities within CPS domains.

Inductive-Capacitive Resonant Circuit Sensors for Structural Health and Environmental Monitoring

Inductive-capacitive (LC) resonant circuit sensors are low-cost, wireless, durable, simple to fabricate and battery-less. Consequently, they are well suited to sensing applications in harsh environments or in situations where large numbers of sensors are needed. They are also advantageous in applications where access to the sensor is limited or impossible or when sensors are needed on a disposable basis. Due to their many advantages, LC sensors have been used for sensing a variety of parameters including humidity, temperature, chemical concentrations, pH, stress/pressure, strain, food quality and even biological growth. However, current versions of the LC sensor technology are limited to sensing only one parameter. The purpose of this work is to develop new types of LC sensor systems that are simpler to fabricate (hence lower cost) or capable of monitoring multiple parameters simultaneously. One design presented in this work, referred to as the multi-element LC sensor, is able to measure multiple parameters simultaneously using a second capacitive element. Compared to conventional LC sensors, this design can sense multiple parameters with a higher detection range than two independent sensors while maintaining the same overall sensor footprint. In addition, the two-element sensor does not suffer from interference issues normally encountered while implementing two LC sensors in close proximity. Another design, the single-spiral inductive-capacitive sensor, utilizes the parasitic capacitance of a coil or spring structure to form a single layer LC resonant circuit. Unlike conventional LC sensors, this design is truly planar, thus simplifying its fabrication process and reducing sensor cost. Due to the simplicity of this sensor layout it will be easier and more cost-effective for embedding in common building or packaging materials during manufacturing processes, thereby adding functionality to current products (such as drywall sheets) while having a minor impact on overall unit cost. These modifications to the LC sensor design significantly improve the functionality and commercial feasibility of this technology, especially for applications where a large array of sensors or multiple sensing parameters are required.

A hybrid approach of knowledge-based reasoning for structural assessment

La idea básica de detección de defectos basada en vibraciones en Monitorización de la Salud Estructural (SHM), es que el defecto altera las propiedades de rigidez, masa o disipación de energía de un sistema, el cual, altera la respuesta dinámica del mismo. Dentro del contexto de reconocimiento de patrones, esta tesis presenta una metodología híbrida de razonamiento para evaluar los defectos en las estructuras, combinando el uso de un modelo de la estructura y/o experimentos previos con el esquema de razonamiento basado en el conocimiento para evaluar si el defecto está presente, su gravedad y su localización. La metodología involucra algunos elementos relacionados con análisis de vibraciones, matemáticas (wavelets, control de procesos estadístico), análisis y procesamiento de señales y/o patrones (razonamiento basado en casos, redes auto-organizativas), estructuras inteligentes y detección de defectos. Las técnicas son validadas numérica y experimentalmente considerando corrosión, pérdida de masa, acumulación de masa e impactos. Las estructuras usadas durante este trabajo son: una estructura tipo cercha voladiza, una viga de aluminio, dos secciones de tubería y una parte del ala de un avión comercial.

Smart structures health monitoring using artificial neural network

This paper presents a non-model based technique to detect and locate structural damage with the use of artificial neural networks. This method utilizes high frequency structural excitation (typically greater than 30 kHz) through a surface-bonded piezoelectric sensor/actuator to detect changes in structural point impedance due to the presence of damage. Two sets of artificial neural networks were developed in order to detect, locate and characterize structural damage by examining changes in the measured impedance curves. A simulation beam model was developed to verify the proposed method. An experiment was successfully performed in detecting damage on a 4-bay structure with bolted-joints, where the bolts were progressively released.