The inclusion and juridification of victims on the Island of Ireland

Concern for crime victims has been a growing political issue in improving the legitimacy and success of the criminal justice system through the rhetoric of rights. Since the 1970s there have been numerous reforms and policy documents produced to enhance victims’ satisfaction in the criminal justice system. Both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland have seen a sea-change in more recent years from a focus on services for victims to a greater emphasis on procedural rights. The purpose of this chapter is to chart these reforms against the backdrop of wider political and regional changes emanating from the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights, and to critically examine whether the position of crime victims has actually ameliorated.

While separated into two legal jurisdictions, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland as common law countries have both grappled with similar challenges in improving crime victim satisfaction in adversarial criminal proceedings. This chapter begins by discussing the historical and theoretical concern for crime victims in the criminal justice system, and how this has changed in recent years. The rest of the chapter is split into two parts focusing on the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Both parts examine the provisions of services to victims, and the move towards more procedural rights for victims in terms of information, participation, protection and compensation. The chapter concludes by finding that despite being different legal jurisdictions, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland have introduced many similar reforms for crime victims in recent years.

Reparations for ‘guilty victims’: Navigating Complex Identities of Victim-Perpetrators in Reparation Mechanisms

Reparations are often declared victim-centred, but in transitional societies defining who is a victim and eligible for reparations can be a politically charged and controversial process. Added to this, the messy reality of conflict means that perpetrators and victims do not always fall in two separate categories. Instead in certain circumstances perpetrators can be victimised and victims can be responsible for victimising others. This article explores complex victims, who are responsible for victimising others, but have themselves been unlawfully victimised. Looking in particular at the 1993 Shankill bombing in Northern Ireland, as well as Colombia and Peru, such complex victims are often seen as ‘guilty’ or ‘bad’ victims undeserving of reparations. This article argues that complex victims need to be included in reparation mechanisms to ensure accountability and to prevent their exclusion becoming a source of victimisation and future violence. It considers alternative avenues of human rights courts, development aid, services and community reparations to navigate complex identities of victim-perpetrators. In concluding the author finds that complex identities can be accommodated in transitional societies reparation programmes through nuanced rules of eligibility and forms of reparations.

A Pension for Injured Victims of the Troubles: Reparations or Reifying Victim Hierarchy?

Reparations have been often used victim-centred measures to redress both private harm and gross violations of human rights. However, with the increasing occurrence of internal armed conflict and political violence, identities of victims and perpetrators in protracted conflicts can become blurred for some individuals. In countries like Peru and Northern Ireland that have suffered protracted violence, victimhood has been contested around which individuals are seen as innocent and deserving to exclude any members of non-state armed groups from claiming reparations. This article explores the issue of a proposed bill on a pension for injured victims of the Troubles in Northern Ireland. It identifies that there is no consistent state practice or human rights jurisprudence in this area, but instead offers a more complex approach through four models that can grapple with the seeming diametrically opposed victimhood and responsibility, by including victimised-perpetrators in reparations programmes such as that proposed for a pension of seriously injured victims in Northern Ireland.

Complementarity’s monopoly on justice in Uganda: the International Criminal Court, victims and Thomas Kwoyelo

Complementarity has been extolled as the pioneering way for the International Criminal Court (ICC) to navigate the difficulties of state sovereignty when investigating and prosecuting international crimes. Victims have often been held up to justify and legitimise the work of the ICC and states complementing the Court through domestic processes. This article examines how Uganda has developed its laws, legal procedure, and accountability for international crimes over the past decade. This has culminated in the trial of Thomas Kwoyelo, which after five years of proceedings, has yet to move to the trial phase, due to the issue of an amnesty. While there has been a profusion of provisions to allow victims to participate, avail of protection measures and reparations, in practice very little has changed for them. This article highlights the dangers of complementarity being the sole solution to protracted conflicts, in particular the realisation of victims’ rights.

Victims, Violence and Voice: Transitional Justice, Oral History and Dealing with the Past

Transitional justice is concerned with the legal and social processes established to deal with the legacy of violence in post-conflict and post-authoritarian contexts. These processes are essentially “creatures of law” – they are established by statute, their work is molded and shaped by lawyers, and their outcomes are benchmarked against what is or is not acceptable in domestic and international law. Concerns have mounted in recent years about the dominance of legalism within the field and the instrumentalization of those most directly affected by past violence. A commonly prescribed – but as yet largely empirically untested – corrective is that transitional justice theory and practice must become more open to interdisciplinary insights and perspectives. The interview – in different guises, contexts and settings – is at the heart of most transitional justice processes. As a historian now working in a School of Law I reflect in this article on the theoretical and practical intersections between law, history, and the interview. Drawing on more than 200 interviews concerning the Northern Ireland conflict and six other international case studies I concentrate in particular on interview-based initiatives that purport to be “victim-centered”. Having identified three interrelated risks - the manipulation of victim voice by vested interests, the affording of authority to particular voices, and the reification or “freezing” of identity - and having related these to the constraints of legal mechanisms and a wider failure to manage victims’ expectations, I argue that a greater familiarity with oral history theory and praxis can usefully illuminate the tensions between legal and historical approaches to engaging voice, and ultimately offer guidance to the shared challenge of victim-centered transitional justice.

Victim impact reports in Northern Ireland: Victims’ voices influencing sentencing?

Discusses three Northern Ireland Court of Appeal decisions concerning the role of victim impact reports (VIRs) on sentencing in sexual violence cases, and illustrating how courts may be unable to rely on victims' accounts of the harm they suffered because the experts' reports were unreliable. Details key features of the cases, the use of VIRs as evidence-based harm, and why improved guidance on their use is needed in Northern Ireland.

The Online dating romance scam: The psychological impact on victims – both financial and non-financial

This paper examined the psychological impact of the online dating romance scam. Unlike other mass-marketing fraud victims, these victims experienced a ‘double hit’ of the scam: a financial loss and the loss of a relationship. For most, the loss of the relationship was more upsetting than their financial losses (many described the loss of the relationship as a ‘death’). Some described their experience as traumatic and all were affected negatively by the crime. Most victims had not found ways to cope given the lack of understanding from family and friends. Denial (e.g., not accepting the scam was real or not being able to separate the fake identity with the criminal) was identified as an ineffective means of coping, leaving the victim vulnerable to a second wave of the scam. Suggestions are made as to how to change policy with regards to law enforcement deal with this crime.

The dual role of students with behavioural problems: an analysis of their experiences as bullies and victims /

The present study examined the bullying experiences of a group of students, age 10-14 years, identified as having behaviour problems. A total often students participated in a series of mixed methodology activities, including self-report questionnaires, story telling exercises, and interview style joumaling. The main research questions were related to the prevalence of bully/victims and the type of bullying experiences in this population. Questionnaires gathered information about their involvement in bullying, as well as about psychological risk factors including normative beliefs about antisocial acts, impulsivity, problem solving, and coping strategies. Journal questions expanded on these themes and allowed students to explain their personal experiences as bullies and victims as well as provide suggestions for intervention. The overall results indicated that all of the ten students in this sample have participated in bullying as both a bully and a victim. This high prevalence of bully/victim involvement in students from behavioural classrooms is in sharp contrast with the general population where the prevalence is about 33%. In addition, a common thread was found that indicated that these students who participated in this study demonstrate characteristics of emotionally dysregulated reactive bullies. Theoretical implication and educational practices are discussed.

Correlates and outcomes of severe bullying: internalizing maladjustments of adolescent bullies, victims and bully- victims

The current study examined the association between involvement in bullying and victimization and internalizing difficulties such as self-esteem, social anxiety, depression and body image. Possible gender differences were also examined. The participants, high school students from Southern Ontario (N=533), were drawn from a larger, data set as part ofa study that was completed by the Youth Lifestyle Choices: Community Research Alliance (YLCCURA). The students completed a self-report questionnaire on a number ofmeasures; including, bullying, victimization, self-esteem, social anxiety, depression and body image. The results of this study suggest that those students who self-identified as victims and bully-victims also report higher levels of anxiety and depression than controls and bullies. Severe victims and bullyvictims had a lower body image than severe bullies and controls, whereas severe bullies seem to have a higher body image score than controls. These results are relevant when considering treatments and interventions for students experiencing adjustment difficulties who may also be at risk for bullying victimization. The results also suggest that particular attention needs to be focused on those adolescents who play multi-roles in bullying situations (i.e., bully-victims), since these students may come to the attention ofthe school system for externalizing behaviours, but may also need assistance for internalizing maladjustments.

Is there more to restorative justice than mere compliance to procedural justice? : a qualitative reflection from the victims' point of view

Une multitude de recherches évaluatives ont démontré que les victimes de crime, qu’elles soient victimes d’un crime contre les biens ou contre la personne, apprécient l’approche réparatrice. Cependant, nous sommes toujours à la recherche des facteurs théoriques qui expliqueraient la satisfaction des victimes en ce qui concerne leur expérience avec les interventions réparatrices. La recherche décrite dans cette thèse concerne l’exploration des facteurs contribuant à la satisfaction des victimes de crime avec l’approche réparatrice ainsi que ses liens avec la théorie de justice procédurale. Selon la théorie de justice procédurale, la perception de justice n’est pas uniquement associée à l’appréciation du résultat d’une intervention, mais également à l’appréciation de la procédure, et que la procédure et le résultat peuvent être évalués de façon indépendante. Les procédures qui privilégient la confiance, la neutralité et le respect, ainsi que la participation et la voix des parties sont plus appréciées. Notre objectif de recherche était d’explorer l’analogie entre l’appréciation de la justice réparatrice et le concept de justice procédurale. En outre, nous avons voulu déterminer si la justice réparatrice surpasse, en termes de satisfaction, ceux prévus par la théorie de justice procédurale. Nous avons également examiné la différence dans l’appréciation de l’approche réparatrice selon le moment de l’application, soit avant ou après adjudication pénale. Ainsi, nous avons exploré le rôle d’une décision judiciaire dans l’évaluation de l’approche réparatrice. Pour répondre à nos objectifs de recherche, nous avons consulté des victimes de crime violent au sujet de leur expérience avec l’approche réparatrice. Nous avons mené des entrevues semi-directives avec des victimes de crime violent qui ont participé à une médiation auteur-victime, à une concertation réparatrice en groupe ou aux rencontres détenus-victimes au Canada (N=13) et en Belgique (N=21). Dans cet échantillon, 14 répondants ont participé à une intervention réparatrice avant adjudication judiciaire et 14 après adjudication. Nous avons observé que l’approche réparatrice semble être en analogie avec la théorie de justice procédurale. D’ailleurs, l’approche réparatrice dépasse les prémisses de la justice procédurale en étant flexible, en offrant de l’aide, en se concentrant sur le dialogue et en permettant d’aborder des raisons altruistes. Finalement, le moment de l’application, soit avant ou après adjudication, ne semble pas affecter l’appréciation des interventions réparatrices. Néanmoins, le rôle attribué à l’intervention réparatrice ainsi que l’effet sur l’évaluation du système judiciaire diffèrent selon le moment d’application. Les victimes suggèrent de continuer à développer l’approche réparatrice en tant que complément aux procédures judiciaires, plutôt qu’en tant que mesure alternative. Les témoignages des victimes servent la cause de l’offre réparatrice aux victimes de crime violent. L’offre réparatrice pourrait aussi être élargie aux différentes phases du système judiciaire. Cependant, la préférence pour l’approche réparatrice comme complément aux procédures judiciaires implique la nécessité d’investir également dans la capacité du système judiciaire de répondre aux besoins des victimes, tant sur le plan de la procédure que sur le plan du traitement par les autorités judiciaires.

Media coverage outside the courtroom : public opinion of restrictions imposed on news journalists and psychological effects on crime victims

Comme les études sur la couverture médiatique ont démontré qu’elle influence pratiquement toute personne qu’elle touche, des consommateurs aux jurés aux témoins, les deux études de cette thèse doctorale ont respectivement examiné l’opinion du public sur l’imposition de restrictions sur les médias dans les palais des justices et l’impact de la couverture médiatique sur la santé mentale des victimes de crime. Le gouvernement québécois a récemment introduit des restrictions sur les médias dans les palais de justice afin de minimiser l’influence des journalistes et des caméramans. Bien que l’affaire a atteint la Cour suprême du Canada, une étude préliminaire a trouvé que le public est largement favorable à ces restrictions (Sabourin, 2006). La première partie de cette thèse doctorale cherchait à approfondir ce sujet avec un échantillon plus représentatif de la population. Deux cent quarante-trois participants comprenant six groupes expérimentaux ont rempli des questionnaires mesurant leur opinion de ces restrictions. Les participants ont été divisé en deux conditions expérimentales où ils ont visionné soit des clips audiovisuels démontrant une atmosphère de débordement dans des palais de justice ou des clips plutôt calmes. Un troisième groupe n’a visionné aucun clip audiovisuel. De plus, il y avait deux versions du questionnaire ayant 20 items où les questions ont été présenté en sens inverse. L’étude a trouvé qu’une grande majorité des participants, soit presque 79 pourcent, ont supporté la restriction des médias dans les palais de justice. Il est intéressant de noter qu’un des groupes n’a pas supporté les restrictions – le groupe contrôle qui a lu les énoncés supportant l’absence des restrictions en premier. La deuxième composante de cette thèse doctorale a examiné l’impact des médias sur les victimes de crime. De nombreuses études expérimentales ont démontré que les victimes de crime sont particulièrement susceptibles à des problèmes de santé mentale. En effet, elles ont trois fois plus de chances de développer un trouble de stress post-traumatique (TSPT) que la population générale. Une étude a confirmé cette conclusion et a trouvé que les victimes de crimes qui avaient une impression plutôt négative de leur couverture médiatique avaient les taux les plus élévés de TSPT (Maercker & Mehr, 2006). Dans l’étude actuelle, vingt-trois victimes de crimes ont été interviewé en utilisant une technique narrative et ont complété deux questionnaires mésurant leur symptômes du TSPT et d’anxiété, respectivement. Une grande proportion des participantes avaient des symptômes de santé mentale et des scores élévés sur une échelle évaluant les symptômes du TSPT. La majorité des narratives des participants étaient négatives. Les thèmes les plus communs incluent dans ces narratives étaient l’autoculpabilisation et une méfiance des autres. La couverture médiatique ne semblaient pas être liée à des symptômes de santé mentale, quoique des facteurs individuels pourraient expliquer pourquoi certains participants ont été favorables envers leur couverture médiatique et d’autres ne l’été pas. Les résultats de ces deux études suggèrent que le public approuve la restriction des médias dans les palais de justice et que des facteurs individuels pourraient expliqués comment la couverture médiatique affecte les victimes de crime. Ces résultats ajoutent à la littérature qui questionne les pratiques actuelles qu’utilisent les médias.

First victims then perpetrators: child soldiers and International La

Este artículo examina la cuestión de los niños soldados en el Derecho Internacional. Después de haber hecho algunas observaciones preliminares sobre el enfoque del derecho internacional de los derechos humanos y del derecho humanitario sobre la protección de los derechos de los niños que se encuentren en un conflicto armado, el artículo revisa la prohibición del reclutamiento de los menores y la responsabilidad penal personal de los que los reclutan. También, será analizada la jurisprudencia sobre el reclutamiento de los niños. En la cuarta parte del artículo, se dará cuenta de la hipótesis de los menores autores de crímenes internacionales y se considerarán los enfoques de la justicia retributiva y de la justicia restaurativa