Assessment of trophic change and its probable impact on tropical estuarine environment (the Kodungallur-Azhikode estuary, India)

The cumulative effects of global change, including climate change, increased population density and domestic waste disposal, effluent discharges from industrial processes, agriculture and aquaculture will likely continue and increases the process of eutrophication in estuarine environments. Eutrophication is one of the leading causes of degraded water quality, water column hypoxia/anoxia, harmful algal bloom (HAB) and loss of habitat and species diversity in the estuarine environment. The present study attempts to characterize the trophic condition of coastal estuary using a simple tool; trophic index (TRIX) based on a linear combination of the log of four state variables with supplementary index Efficiency Coefficient (Eff. Coeff.) as a discriminating tool. Numerically, the index TRIX is scaled from 0 to10, covering a wide range of trophic conditions from oligotrophic to eutrophic. Study area Kodungallur-Azhikode Estuary (KAE) was comparatively shallow in nature with average depth of 3.6±0.2 m. Dissolve oxygen regime in the water column was ranged from 4.7±1.3 mgL−1 in Station I to 5.9±1.4 mgL−1 in Station IV. The average nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) of KAE water was 470 mg m−3; values ranged from Av. 364.4 mg m−3 at Station II to Av. 626.6 mg m−3at Station VII. The mean ammonium-nitrogen (NH4 +-N) varied from 54.1 mg m−3 at Station VII to 101 mg m−3 at Station III. The average Chl-a for the seven stations of KAE was 6.42±3.91 mg m−3. Comparisons over different spatial and temporal scales in the KAE and study observed that, estuary experiencing high productivity by the influence of high degree of eutrophication; an annual average of 6.91 TRIX was noticed in the KAE and seasonal highest was observed during pre monsoon period (7.15) and lowest during post monsoon period (6.51). In the spatial scale station V showed high value 7.37 and comparatively low values in the station VI (6.93) and station VII (6.96) and which indicates eutrophication was predominant in land cover area with comparatively high water residence time. Eff. Coeff. values in the KAE ranges from −2.74 during monsoon period to the lowest of −1.98 in pre monsoon period. Present study revealed that trophic state of the estuary under severe stress and the restriction of autochthonous and allochthonous nutrient loading should be keystone in mitigate from eutrophication process

Current status and biodiversity modification in the coastal wetland ecosystems of India with objectives for its sustainable management

The South West (S.W.) coast of India is blessed with a series of wetland systems popularly referred to as backwaters covering a total area of 46128.94 ha. These backwaters are internationally renowned for their aesthetic and scientific values including being a repository for several species fish and shell fishes. This is more significant in that three wetlands (Vembanad, Sasthamcotta and Ashtamudi) have recently been designated as Ramsar sites of international importance. Thirty major backwaters forming the crux of the coastal wetlands form an abode for over 200 resident or migratory fish and shellfish species. The fishing activities in these water bodies provide the livelihood to about 200,000 fishers and also provide full-time employment to over 50,000 fishermen. This paper describes the changes on the environmental and biodiversity status of selected wetlands, during 1994-2005 period. The pH was generally near neutral to alkaline in range. The salinity values indicated mixohaline condition ranging from 5.20-32.38 ppt. in the 12 wetlands. The productivity values were generally low in most of the wetlands during the study, where the gross production varied from 0.22 gC/m3/day in Kadinamkulam to 1.10 gC/m3/day in the Kayamkulam. The diversity of plankton and benthos was more during the pre-monsoon compared to the monsoon and post-monsoon periods in most of the wetlands. The diversity of plankton and benthos was more during the pre-monsoon compared to the monsoon and post-monsoon periods in most of the wetlands. The average fish yield per ha. varied from 246 kg. in Valapattanam to 2747.3 kg. in Azhikode wetland. Retting of coconut husk in most of the wetlands led to acidic pH conditions with anoxia resulting in the production of high amounts of sulphide, coupled with high carbon dioxide values leading to drastic reduction in the incidence and abundance of plankton, benthic fauna and the fishery resources. The major fish species recorded from the investigation were Etroplus suratensis, E. maculatus, Channa marulius, Labeo dussumieri, Puntius sp. Lutianus argentimaculatus, Mystus sp., Tachysurus sp. and Hemiramphus sp. The majority of these backwaters are highly stressed, especially during the pre monsoon period when the retting activity is at its peak. The study has clearly reflected that a more restrained and cautious approach is needed to manage and preserve the unique backwater ecosystems of South-west India

Export performancecof Indian spices in the WTO regime: a disaggregated analysis

Export has assumed an important place in the development of any country and considered as the engine of economic growth. India requires huge amount of foreign exchange for its essential import and for achieving rapid growth. Millions of job opportunities have to be created to utilise the youth for nation building. Even though the country has different sources of foreign exchange, export earning is the safe way of obtaining it in the long run. Export of high valued traditional products not only gives foreign exchange, but also employment to large number of people. Spices are the traditional products of India whose production process is highly intensive in semi and unskilled labour, and high domestic and foreign market prices compared to other traditional products. The new world trade scenario with the establishment of WTO has affected India’s spices export considerably. The study examines the export performance of Indian spices in the WTO regime taking the export of major spices from 1985 to 2013 using the growth of export, trend and instability in growth rate, changes in the composition and direction of spices, export performance ratio and the prospects of spices in earning foreign exchange during the WTO period and Pre-WTO period. The analysis reveals that the overall performance of Indian spices exports during the WTO regime are satisfactory. Export volume and value increased much during this period. But the decrease in market share of spices export during the WTO period reflects that, the favourable conditions in the international market are not exploited by India. High Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and Value Elasticity (EV) of major spices amidst the low export shares shows that export performance of Indian spices during the WTO regime was not mainly affected by external demand factors as suggested by Ragnar Nurkse in his Demand Deficiency Thesis, but because of internal supply factors as suggested in Supply Deficiency Thesis, (supported by K.S Dhinsha, Dacosta, Goddamwar,etc.). But the fluctuations of export during the recession and prosperity periods show that external demand is also a determinant of Indian spices export. From this one can conclude that both the domestic supply factors and foreign demand factors influence the export performance of Indian spices. The long term performance of Indian spices exports are mainly influenced by domestic supply factors as suggested by Supply Deficiency Thesis and short term performance is mostly influenced by external demand factors as suggested by Demand Deficiency Thesis.

A Study on Futures Trading in Commodities With Special Reference to Rubber

Futures trading in Commodities has three specific economic functions viz. price discovery, hedging and reduction in volatility. Natural rubber possesses all the specifications required for futures trading. Commodity futures trading in India attained momentum after the starting of national level commodity exchanges in 2003. The success of futures trading depends upon effective price risk management, price discovery and reduced volatility which in turn depends upon the volume of trading. In the case of rubber futures market, the volume of trading depends upon the extent of participation by market players like growers, dealers, manufacturers, rubber marketing co-operative societies and Rubber Producer’s Societies (RPS). The extent of participation by market players has a direct bearing on their awareness level and their perception about futures trading. In the light of the above facts and the review of literature available on rubber futures market, it is felt that a study on rubber futures market is necessary to fill the research gap, with specific focus on (1) the awareness and perception of rubber futures market participants viz. (i) rubber growers, (ii) dealers, (iii) rubber product manufacturers, (iv) rubber marketing co-operative societies and Rubber Producer’s Societies (RPS) about futures trading and (2) whether the rubber futures market is fulfilling the economic functions of futures market viz. hedging, reduction in volatility and price discovery or not. The study is confined to growers, dealers, rubber goods manufacturers, rubber marketing co-operative societies and RPS in Kerala. In order to achieve the stated objectives, the study utilized secondary data for the period from 2003 to 2013 from different published sources like bulletins, newsletters, circulars from NMCE, Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Warehousing Corporation and traders. The primary data required for this study were collected from rubber growers, rubber dealers, RPS & Rubber Marketing Co-operative Societies and rubber goods manufacturers in Kerala. Data pertaining to the awareness and perception of futures trading, participation in the futures trading, use of spot and futures prices and source of price information by dealers, farmers, manufacturers and cooperative societies also were collected. Statistical tools used for analysis include percentage, standard deviation, Chi-square test, Mann – Whitney U test, Kruskal Wallis test, Augmented Dickey – Fuller test statistic, t- statistic, Granger causality test, F- statistic, Johansen co – integration test, Trace statistic and Max –Eigen statistic. The study found that 71.5 per cent of the total hedges are effective and 28.5 per cent are ineffective for the period under study. It implies that futures market in rubber reduced the impact of price risks by approximately 71.5 per cent. Further, it is observed that, on 54.4 per cent occasions, the futures market exercised a stabilizing effect on the spot market, and on 45.6 per cent occasions futures trading exercised a destabilizing effect on the spot market. It implies that elasticity of expectation of futures market in rubber has a predominant stabilizing effect on spot prices. The market, as a whole, exhibits a bias in favour of long hedges. Spot price volatility of rubber during futures suspension period is more than that of the pre suspension period and post suspension period. There is a bi-directional association-ship or bi-directional causality or pair- wise causality between spot price and futures price of rubber. From the results of the hedging efficiency, spot price volatility, and price discovery, it can be concluded that rubber futures market fulfils all the economic functions expected from a commodity futures market. Thus in India, the future of rubber futures is Bright…!!!

Estágio no escalão de iniciados (sub-15) no clube atlético e cultural 2010-2011

RESUMO: O Clube Atlético e Cultural (C.A.C.), apesar de ser relativamente recente, é reconhecido como um Clube Desportivo de formação de atletas de referência na zona de Lisboa. O seu pico de reconhecimento e a sua maior “montra” de formação é sem dúvida o Torneio Internacional da Pontinha (escalão Sub-13), onde é palco de jogos durante 4 dias entre os maiores clubes nacionais, bem como, alguns clubes mundialmente conhecidos. Como prova desse facto, se analisarmos alguns jogadores de elite profissional, têm no seu percurso de formação o C.A.C. como instituição representada. O relatório que de seguida se apresenta, surge no âmbito do estágio de Mestrado em Treino Desportivo e pretende divulgar todas as decisões, acções e reflexões subjacentes ao Treino Desportivo de jovens jogadores. O contexto onde foi realizado foi na equipa de Iniciados “A” (Sub-15), que disputou o Campeonato da Divisão de Honra da Associação Futebol de Lisboa. O relatório encontra-se estruturado do geral para o particular, estando dividido em três tipos de planificação: (1) Planificação Conceptual – na qual abrange uma análise ao Clube em questão, o seu contexto, os seus recursos e os vários constrangimentos. Compreende ainda um estudo prévio de situações anteriores, leia-se, épocas anteriores, bem como, a formação da equipa e dos seus jogadores, em função dos objectivos traçados e assumidos no inicio da época desportiva. Integra também a preparação de todo o período Pré-Competitivo e o recurso a meios de observação e análise visando a melhoria de todo o processo de planeamento do treino. (2) Planificação Estratégica – Esta prevê todas as acções que dizem respeito ao Período Competitivo da equipa, como por exemplo a recolha de dados tanto da nossa equipa como dos adversários, a antecipação dos graus de dificuldade dos nossos adversários, o planeamento mais operacional (Microciclos) e a escolha de estratégias consoante os diferentes adversários e por fim, as reflexões necessárias entre os vários intervenientes no processo. (3) Planificação Táctica – Por fim este tipo de planificação abarca todas as acções, decisões e reacções nos momentos que antecedem o jogo, no momento em que este decorre e ainda após este terminar. Em suma, o relatório pretende expor toda a preparação de uma equipa ao longo de uma época desportiva, visto de uma perspectiva das funções de um treinador principal. ABSTRACT: The Clube Atlético e Cultural (C.A.C.), although relatively recent, is recognized as a reference club in youths training in the Lisbon area. The peak recognition and more “showcase” training ins undoubtedly the Torneio Internacional da Pontinha (Under-13), which is host to games during four days among the biggest national clubs, as well as some world-renowned clubs. As proof thereof, if we look at some elite professional players, have in their educational path C.A.C. represented as an institution. The report that presents itself, appears in the stage of Master of Sports Training and intends to disclose all the decisions, actions and thoughts behind the Sports Training of young players. The report is structured from general to particular, being divided into three types of planning: (1) Conceptual Planning - which includes an analysis on the club in question, its context, its resources and various constraints. It also includes a previous study of past situations like earlier seasons, as well as the formation of the team and its players, according to the objectives and commitments outlined in the beginning of the season. Also includes the preparation of all pre-competition period and the use of means of observation and analysis aimed at improving the entire process of planning the training. (2) Strategic Planning - This provides all the activities that concern the competitive period of the team, such as collecting information both from our team as well as opponents, anticipating the degree of difficulty of our adversaries, the more operational planning (microcycles) and the choice of strategies depending on different opponents and finally the necessary reflections between the various actors in the process. (3) Tactical Planning - Finally this type of planning includes all actions, decisions and reactions in the moments before, during and even after the game. To resume, the report seeks to expose all the preparation of the team throughout a sports season, by the perspective of the functions of a head coach.

Use of fibrolytic enzymes to improve the nutritive value of ruminant diets - A biochemical and in vitro rumen degradation assessment

Two commercial enzyme products, Depol 40 (D) and Liquicell 2500 (L), were characterised from a biochemical standpoint and their potential to improve rumen degradation of forages was evaluated in vitro. Enzyme activities were determined at pH 5.5 and 39 degreesC. Analysis of the enzyme activities indicated that L contained higher xylanase and endoglucanase, but lower exoglucanase, pectinase and alpha-amylase activities than D. The Reading Pressure Technique (RPT) was used to investigate the effect of enzyme addition on the in vitro gas production (GP) and organic matter degradation (OMD) of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) stems and leaves. A completely randomised design with factorial arrangement of treatments was used. Both alfalfa fractions were untreated or treated with each enzyme at four levels, 20 h before incubation with rumen fluid. Each level of enzyme provided similar amounts of filter paper (D1, L1), endoglucanase (D2, L2), alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase (D3, L3) and xylanase units (D4, L4) per gram forage DM. Enzymes increased the initial OMD in both fractions, with improvements of up to 15% in leaves (D4) and 8% in stems (L2) after 12 h incubation. All enzyme treatments increased the extent of degradation (96 h incubation) in the leaf fractions, but only L2 increased final OMD in the stems. Direct hydrolysis of forage fractions during the pre-treatment period did not fully account for the magnitude of the increases in OMD, suggesting that the increase in rate of degradation was achieved through a combined effect of direct enzyme hydrolysis and synergistic action between the exogenous (applied) and endogenous (rumen) enzymes. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Influence of exogenous fibrolytic enzyme level and incubation pH on the in vitro ruminal fermentation of alfalfa stems

A series of in vitro experiments was carried out to examine the impact of enzyme application rate and incubation medium pH on the rate and extent of fermentation of alfalfa stems. In Experiment 1, a commercial enzyme product (Liquicell 2500, Specialty Enzyme and Biochemicals, Fresno, CA, USA) was added to alfalfa stems at six levels: 0, 0.51, 1.02, 2.55, 5.1, and 25.5 mu l/g (control and L1-L5, respectively) to forage DM in a completely randomized design, with a factorial arrangement of treatments. Rate and extent of fermentation and apparent organic matter degradation (OMD) were determined in vitro, using a gas production technique. Addition of enzyme linearly increased (P < 0.01) gas production for up to 12 h (68.9, 70.9, 67.6, 67.9, 71.9, and 74.9 ml/g OM for control, L1-L5, respectively) and OMD for up to 19 h incubation (0.425, 0.444, 0.433, 0.446, 0.443, and 0.451 for control, L1-L5, respectively), but no increases (P > 0.05) were detected thereafter. In Experiment 2, the effect of the same enzyme as used previously (added at 0.51 mu l/g forage DM, directly into the incubation medium), and buffer pH were examined using the ANKOM system, in a completely randomized design. Incubation medium pH was altered using 1 M citric acid, in order to obtain target initial pH values of 6.8 (control, no citric acid added), 6.2, 5.8, and 5.4. Actual initial pH values achieved were 6.72, 6.50, 6.20, and 5.72. Lowering the pH decreased (P < 0.01) dry matter disappearance (DMD) at 18 h incubation (0.339, 0.341, 0.314, and 0.291 for 6.72, 6.50, 6.20, and 5.72, respectively), whereas enzyme addition increased (P < 0.05) DMD at 24 h (0.363 versus 0.387 for control and enzyme-treated, respectively). Addition of enzyme increased (P < 0.05) neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and hemicellulose (HC) degradation at pH 6.50 (0.077 versus 0.117; 0.020 versus 0.051; 0.217 versus 0.270 for control and enzyme-treated NDF, ADF and hemicellulose degradation, respectively) and 6.72 (0.091 versus 0.134; 0.041 versus 0.079; 0.205 versus 0.261 for control and enzyme-treated NDF, ADF and HC degradation, respectively). It is concluded that the positive effects of this enzyme product were independent of the pre-treatment period, but pH influenced the responses to enzyme supplementation. Under the conditions of this experiment, exogenous fibrolytic enzymes seemed to work better at close to neutrality ruminal pH conditions. (C) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Metabolic profiles and progesterone cycles in first lactation dairy cows

This study investigated the ovarian function, metabolic profiles and fertility in first lactation Holstein-Friesian dairy cows (mean 305 day milk yield: 7417 +/- 191 kg, n = 37). Reproductive profiles obtained from milk progesterone analysis were categorized into normal (n = 17) and four abnormal profiles (delayed ovulation, DOV1, n = 9; DOV2, n = 2; persistent corpus luteum, PCL1, n = 6; PCL2, n = 4; 1: immediately post-calving, 2: subsequent cycles). Fifty-five percent of cows had abnormal profiles with half of these being categorized as DOV1. Fertility of DOV1 and DOV2 cows was reduced whereas PCL1 and PCL2 cows had similar reproductive competence to normal profile cows. DOV1 animals had higher milk energy values, lower energy balances, lower dry matter intakes (DMI) and greater body weight and body condition score (BCS) losses post-calving than normal profile animals. DOV1 animals also had lower insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and higher betahydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentrations and tended to have the lower insulin and glucose concentrations in the pre-service period than normal profile cows. All PCL animals had vulval discharges postpartum. Despite this, the DMI, body weight and BCS changes, IGF-I concentrations and fertility of PCL1 animals was similar to normal profile cows. In conclusion, the high prevalence of delayed ovulation post-calving (DOV1) in primiparous high yielding cows lasted long enough (71 +/- 8.3 days) to have a detrimental impact on fertility and was associated with significant physiological changes. This study did not establish any detrimental effects of PCL profiles on fertility or production parameters. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Artificial diet for aphids - thirty years' experience

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) was reared continuously for over thirty years (until it died out in December 2008) on a totally defined synthetic artificial diet, the procedure for which is described. Development time was extended on diet compared with rearing on Brussels sprout plants (Brassica oleracea L. var. gemmifera L.), and generation time was further increased by an added pre-reproductive period of 4 days. Fecundity was reduced by about two-thirds, and mean relative growth rate in weight (MRGR) was only 60% in comparison with plant-reared aphids. Applying 2 kg/cm(2) pressure to a 10% sucrose solution extended the adult longevity of Aphis fabae Scopoli by less than I day. In contrast, a short experience of half-strength diet Caused a sharp rise in honeydew excretion by A. fabae for several hours, and alternating full-strength diet with diluted diets (including water) Caused a greater weight increase. The poor performance of aphids on diet thus seems to have a behavioural rather than a mechanical explanation. The diet, designed to give optimal performance of the aphids, has proved not to be useful for nutritional studies, as any change is deleterious. Areas of aphid research where the diet has been useful, however, are studies on repellents/attractants/toxins, role of symbionts, maintenance of genotype collections, work on parasitoid behaviour in relation to plant chemistry, and collection of aphid saliva.

The impact of sarcoptic mange Sarcoptes scabiei on the British fox Vulpes vulpes population

1. Disease epizootics can significantly influence host population dynamics and the structure and functioning of ecological communities. Sarcoptic mange Sarcoptes scabiei has dramatically reduced red fox populations Vulpes vulpes in several countries, including Britain, although impacts on demographic processes are poorly understood. We review the literature on the impact of mange on red fox populations, assess its current distribution in Britain through a questionnaire survey and present new data on resultant demographic changes in foxes in Bristol, UK. 2. A mange epizootic in Sweden spread across the entire country in < 10 years resulting in a decline in fox density of up to 95%; density remained lowered for 15–20 years. In Spain, mange has been enzootic for > 75 years and is widely distributed; mange presence was negatively correlated with habitat quality. 3. Localized outbreaks have occurred sporadically in Britain during the last 100 years. The most recent large-scale outbreak arose in the 1990s, although mange has been present in south London and surrounding environs since the 1940s. The questionnaire survey indicated that mange was broadly distributed across Britain, but areas of perceived high prevalence (> 50% affected) were mainly in central and southern England. Habitat type did not significantly affect the presence/absence of mange or perceived prevalence rates. Subjective assessments suggested that populations take 15–20 years to recover. 4. Mange appeared in Bristol's foxes in 1994. During the epizootic phase (1994–95), mange spread through the city at a rate of 0.6–0.9 km/month, with a rise in infection in domestic dogs Canis familiaris c. 1–2 months later. Juvenile and adult fox mortality increased and the proportion of females that reproduced declined but litter size was unaffected. Population density declined by > 95%. 5. In the enzootic phase (1996–present), mange was the most significant mortality factor. Juvenile mortality was significantly higher than in the pre-mange period, and the number of juveniles classified as dispersers declined. Mange infection reduced the reproductive potential of males and females: females with advanced mange did not breed; severely infected males failed to undergo spermatogenesis. In 2004, Bristol fox population density was only 15% of that in 1994.

Verb retrieval in fluent aphasia: a clinical study

Background: Problems with lexical retrieval are common across all types of aphasia but certain word classes are thought to be more vulnerable in some aphasia types. Traditionally, verb retrieval problems have been considered characteristic of non-fluent aphasias but there is growing evidence that verb retrieval problems are also found in fluent aphasia. As verbs are retrieved from the mental lexicon with syntactic as well as phonological and semantic information, it is speculated that an improvement in verb retrieval should enhance communicative abilities in this population as in others. We report on an investigation into the effectiveness of verb treatment for three individuals with fluent aphasia. Methods & Procedures: Multiple pre-treatment baselines were established over 3 months in order to monitor language change before treatment. The three participants then received twice-weekly verb treatment over approximately 4 months. All pre-treatment assessments were administered immediately after treatment and 3 months post-treatment. Outcome & Results: Scores fluctuated in the pre-treatment period. Following treatment, there was a significant improvement in verb retrieval for two of the three participants on the treated items. The increase in scores for the third participant was statistically nonsignificant but post-treatment scores moved from below the normal range to within the normal range. All participants were significantly quicker in the verb retrieval task following treatment. There was an increase in well-formed sentences in the sentence construction test and in some samples of connected speech. Conclusions: Repeated systematic treatment can produce a significant improvement in verb retrieval of practised items and generalise to unpractised items for some participants. An increase in well-formed sentences is seen for some speakers. The theoretical and clinical implications of the results are discussed.

A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized human study assessing the capacity of a novel galacto-oligosaccharide mixture in reducing travellers' diarrhoea.

Background/Objectives: Prebiotics have attracted interest for their ability to positively affect the colonic microbiota composition, thus increasing resistance to infection and diarrhoeal disease. This study assessed the effectiveness of a prebiotic galacto-oligosaccharide mixture (B-GOS) on the severity and/or incidence of travellers' diarrhoea (TD) in healthy subjects. Subjects/Methods: The study was a placebo-controlled, randomized, double blind of parallel design in 159 healthy volunteers, who travelled for minimum of 2 weeks to a country of low or high risk for TD. The investigational product was the B-GOS and the placebo was maltodextrin. Volunteers were randomized into groups with an equal probability of receiving either the prebiotic or placebo. The protocol comprised of a 1 week pre-holiday period recording bowel habit, while receiving intervention and the holiday period. Bowel habit included the number of bowel movements and average consistency of the stools as well as occurrence of abdominal discomfort, flatulence, bloating or vomiting. A clinical report was completed in the case of diarrhoeal incidence. A post-study questionnaire was also completed by all subjects on their return. Results: Results showed significant differences between the B-GOS and the placebo group in the incidence (P<0.05) and duration (P<0.05) of TD. Similar findings occurred on abdominal pain (P<0.05) and the overall quality of life assessment (P<0.05). Conclusions: Consumption of the tested galacto-oligosaccharide mixture showed significant potential in preventing the incidence and symptoms of TD.

Liquidity in commercial property markets: deconstructing the transaction process

This paper draws from a wider research programme in the UK undertaken for the Investment Property Forum examining liquidity in commercial property. One aspect of liquidity is the process by which transactions occur including both how properties are selected for sale and the time taken to transact. The paper analyses data from three organisations; a property company, a major financial institution and an asset management company, formally a major public sector pension fund. The data covers three market states and includes sales completed in 1995, 2000 and 2002 in the UK. The research interviewed key individuals within the three organisations to identify any common patterns of activity within the sale process and also identified the timing of 187 actual transactions from inception of the sale to completion. The research developed a taxonomy of the transaction process. Interviews with vendors indicated that decisions to sell were a product of a combination of portfolio, specific property and market based issues. Properties were generally not kept in a “readiness for sale” state. The average time from first decision to sell the actual property to completion had a mean time of 298 days and a median of 190 days. It is concluded that this study may underestimate the true length of the time to transact for two reasons. Firstly, the pre-marketing period is rarely recorded in transaction files. Secondly, and more fundamentally, studies of sold properties may contain selection bias. The research indicated that vendors tended to sell properties which it was perceived could be sold at a ‘fair’ price in a reasonable period of time.

Past and recent changes in the North Atlantic oscillation

The North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) is under current climate conditions the leading mode of atmospheric circulation variability over the North Atlantic region. While the pattern is present during the entire year, it is most important during winter, explaining a large part of the variability of the large-scale pressure field, being thus largely determinant for the weather conditions over the North Atlantic basin and over Western Europe. In this study, a review of recent literature on the basic understanding of the NAO, its variability on different time scales and driving physical mechanisms is presented. In particular, the observed NAO variations and long-term trends are put into a long term perspective by considering paleo-proxy evidence. A representative number of recently released NAO reconstructions are discussed. While the reconstructions agree reasonably well with observations during the instrumental overlapping period, there is a rather high uncertainty between the different reconstructions for the pre-instrumental period, which leads to partially incoherent results, that is, periods where the NAO reconstructions do not agree even in sign. Finally, we highlight the future need of a broader definition of the NAO, the assessment of the stability of the teleconnection centers over time, the analysis of the relations to other relevant variables like temperature and precipitation, as well as on the relevant processes involved

Historical and idealized climate model experiments: an intercomparison of Earth system models of intermediate complexity

Both historical and idealized climate model experiments are performed with a variety of Earth system models of intermediate complexity (EMICs) as part of a community contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report. Historical simulations start at 850 CE and continue through to 2005. The standard simulations include changes in forcing from solar luminosity, Earth's orbital configuration, CO2, additional greenhouse gases, land use, and sulphate and volcanic aerosols. In spite of very different modelled pre-industrial global surface air temperatures, overall 20th century trends in surface air temperature and carbon uptake are reasonably well simulated when compared to observed trends. Land carbon fluxes show much more variation between models than ocean carbon fluxes, and recent land fluxes appear to be slightly underestimated. It is possible that recent modelled climate trends or climate–carbon feedbacks are overestimated resulting in too much land carbon loss or that carbon uptake due to CO2 and/or nitrogen fertilization is underestimated. Several one thousand year long, idealized, 2 × and 4 × CO2 experiments are used to quantify standard model characteristics, including transient and equilibrium climate sensitivities, and climate–carbon feedbacks. The values from EMICs generally fall within the range given by general circulation models. Seven additional historical simulations, each including a single specified forcing, are used to assess the contributions of different climate forcings to the overall climate and carbon cycle response. The response of surface air temperature is the linear sum of the individual forcings, while the carbon cycle response shows a non-linear interaction between land-use change and CO2 forcings for some models. Finally, the preindustrial portions of the last millennium simulations are used to assess historical model carbon-climate feedbacks. Given the specified forcing, there is a tendency for the EMICs to underestimate the drop in surface air temperature and CO2 between the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the Little Ice Age estimated from palaeoclimate reconstructions. This in turn could be a result of unforced variability within the climate system, uncertainty in the reconstructions of temperature and CO2, errors in the reconstructions of forcing used to drive the models, or the incomplete representation of certain processes within the models. Given the forcing datasets used in this study, the models calculate significant land-use emissions over the pre-industrial period. This implies that land-use emissions might need to be taken into account, when making estimates of climate–carbon feedbacks from palaeoclimate reconstructions.