NGCPV: A new generation of concentrator photovoltaic cells, modules and systems

This work introduces the lines of research that the NGCPV project is pursuing and some of the first results obtained. Sponsored by the European Commission under the 7th Framework Program and NEDO (Japan) within the first collaborative call launched by both Bodies in the field of energy, NGCPV project aims at approaching the cost of the photovoltaic kWh to competitive prices in the framework of high concentration photovoltaics (CPV) by exploring the development and assessment of concentrator photovoltaic solar cells and modules, novel materials and new solar cell structures as well as methods and procedures to standardize measurement technology for concentrator photovoltaic cells and modules. More specific objectives we are facing are: (1) to manufacture a cell prototype with an efficiency of at least 45% and to undertake an experimental activity, (2) to manufacture a 35% module prototype and elaborate the roadmap towards the achievement of 40%, (3) to develop reliable characterization techniques for III-V materials and quantum structures, (4) to achieve and agreement within 5% in the characterization of CPV cells and modules in a round robin scheme, and (5) to evaluate the potential of new materials, devices technologies and quantum nanostructures to improve the efficiency of solar cells for CPV.

Guide to intermediate band solar cell research

The intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) is a solar cell that, in order to increase its efficiency over that of single gap solar cells, takes advantage of the absorption of below-bandgap energy photons by means of an intermediate band (IB) located in the semiconductor bandgap. For this process to improve the solar cell performance, the belowbandgap photon absorption has to be effective and the IB cannot limit the open-circuit voltage of the cell. In this paper we provide a guide to the new researcher interested in the idea in order he can quickly become familiar with the concept and updated with the most relevant experimental results.

Progress on optimization of the solar cell fabrication process by impurity-to-efficiency predictive simulator

To optimize the last high temperature step of a standard solar cell fabrication process (the contact cofiring step), the aluminium gettering is incorporated in the Impurity-to-Efficiency simulation tool, so that it models the phosphorus and aluminium co-gettering effect on iron impurities. The impact of iron on the cell efficiency will depend on the balance between precipitate dissolution and gettering. Gettering efficiency is similar in a wide range of peak temperatures (600-850 ºC), so that this peak temperature can be optimized favoring other parameters (e.g. ohmic contact). An industrial co-firing step can enhance the co-gettering effect by adding a temperature plateau after the peak of temperature. For highly contaminated materials, a short plateau (menor que 2 min) at low temperature (600 ºC) is shown to reduce the dissolved iron.

Full-Wafer Roller-NIL Processes for Silicon Solar Cell Texturisation

The highest solar cell efficiencies both for c-Si and mc-Si were reached using template based texturing processes. Especially for mc-Si the benefit of a defined texture, the so called honeycomb texture, was demonstrated impressively. However, up until now, no industrially feasible process has been available to pattern the necessary etching masks with the sufficient resolution. Roller-Nanoimprint Lithography (Roller-NIL) has the potential to overcome these limitations and to allow high quality pattern transfers, even in the sub-micron regime, in continuous in-line processes. Therefore, this etch-mask patterning technique is a suitable solution to bring such elaborate features like the honeycomb texture to an industrial realization. Beyond that, this fast printing-like technology opens up new possibilities to introduce promising concepts like photonic structures into solar cells.

Damage reduction of the laser drilling process on back contact solar cells by chemical treatment

Production of back contact solar cells requires holes generations on the wafers to keep both positive and negative contacts on the back side of the cell. This drilling process weakens the wafer mechanically due to the presence of the holes and the damage introduced during the process as microcracks. In this study, several chemical processes have been applied to drilled wafers in order to eliminate or reduce the damage generated during this fabrication step. The treatments analyzed are the followings: alkaline etching during 1, 3 and 5 minutes, acid etching for 2 and 4 minutes and texturisation. To determine mechanical strength of the samples a common mechanical study has been carried out testing the samples by the Ring on Ring bending test and obtaining the stress state in the moment of failure by FE simulation. Finally the results obtained for each treatment were fitted to a three parameter Weibull distribution

Present and Future of Photovoltaic Solar Electricity

Ponencia Invitada presentada en el IEEE Region 8 Student Branch and GOLD Congress

Crack origin and detection in thin cristallyne solar cells in a production line

In order to reduce cost and make up for the rising price of silicon, silicon wafers are sliced thinner and wider,eading to weaker wafers and increased breakage rates during fabrication process. In this work we have analysed different cracks origins and their effect on wafer’s mechanical strength. To enhance wafer’s strength some etching methods have been tested. Also, we have analysed wafers from different points of an entire standard production process. Mechanical strength of the wafers has been obtained via the four line bending test and detection of cracks has been tested with Resonance Ultrasonic Vibration (RUV) system, developed by the University of South Florida.

In-situ and Ex-situ characterization of III-V semiconductor materials and solar cells upon 10 MEV proton irradiation

In this work we present the results and analysis of a 10 MeV proton irradiation experiment performed on III-V semiconductor materials and solar cells. A set of representative devices including lattice-matched InGaP/GaInAs/Ge triple junction solar cells and single junction GaAs and InGaP component solar cells and a Ge diode were irradiated for different doses. The devices were studied in-situ before and after each exposure at dark and 1 sun AM0 illumination conditions, using a solar simulator connected to the irradiation chamber through a borosilicate glass window. Ex-situ characterization techniques included dark and 1 sun AM0 illumination I-V measurements. Furthermore, numerical simulation of the devices using D-AMPS-1D code together with calculations based on the TRIM software were performed in order to gain physical insight on the experimental results. The experiment also included the proton irradiation of an unprocessed Ge solar cell structure as well as the irradiation of a bare Ge(100) substrate. Ex-situ material characterization, after radioactive deactivation of the samples, includes Raman spectroscopy and spectral reflectivity.

NGCPV: a new generation of concentrator photovoltaic cells, modules and systems

Starting on June 2011, NGCPV is the first project funded jointly between the European Commission (EC) and the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) of Japan to research on new generation concentration photovoltaics (CPV). The Project, through a collaborative research between seven European and nine Japanese leading research centers in the field of CPV, aims at lowering the cost of the CPVproduced photovoltaic kWh down to 5 ?cents. The main objective of the project is to improve the present concentrator cell, module and system efficiency, as well as developing advanced characterization tools for CPV components and systems. As particular targets, the project aims at achieving a cell efficiency of at least 45% and a CPV module with an efficiency greater than 35%. This paper describes the R&D activities that are being carried out within the NGCPV project and summarizes some of the most relevant results that have already been attained, for instance: the manufacturing of a 44.4% world record efficiency triple junction solar cell (by Sharp Corp.) and the installation of a 50 kWp experimental CPV plant in Spain, which will be used to obtain accurate forecasts of the energy produced at system level.

Operational costs and reliability in a large rural electrification programme based on solar home systems

Experiences in decentralized rural electrification programmes using solar home systems have suffered difficulties during the operation and maintenance phase, due in many cases, to the underestimation of the maintenance cost, because of the decentralized character of the activity, and also because the reliability of the solar home system components is frequently unknown. This paper reports on the reliability study and cost characterization achieved in a large photovoltaic rural electrification programme carried out in Morocco. The paper aims to determinate the reliability features of the solar systems, focusing in the in-field testing for batteries and photovoltaic modules. The degradation rates for batteries and PV modules have been extracted from the in-field experiments. On the other hand, the main costs related to the operation and maintenance activity have been identified with the aim of establishing the main factors that lead to the failure of the quality sustainability in many rural electrification programmes.

Present and future of photovoltaic solar electricity

Introduction Crystalline silicon technology, from quartz to system Economical and environmental issues Alternatives to cristalline silicon technology Conclusions

A free real-time hourly tilted solar irradiation data Website for Europe

The engineering of solar power applications, such as photovoltaic energy (PV) or thermal solar energy requires the knowledge of the solar resource available for the solar energy system. This solar resource is generally obtained from datasets, and is either measured by ground-stations, through the use of pyranometers, or by satellites. The solar irradiation data are generally not free, and their cost can be high, in particular if high temporal resolution is required, such as hourly data. In this work, we present an alternative method to provide free hourly global solar tilted irradiation data for the whole European territory through a web platform. The method that we have developed generates solar irradiation data from a combination of clear-sky simulations and weather conditions data. The results are publicly available for free through Soweda, a Web interface. To our knowledge, this is the first time that hourly solar irradiation data are made available online, in real-time, and for free, to the public. The accuracy of these data is not suitable for applications that require high data accuracy, but can be very useful for other applications that only require a rough estimate of solar irradiation.

Automatic fault detection on BIPV systems without solar irradiation data

BIPV systems are small PV generation units spread out over the territory, and whose characteristics are very diverse. This makes difficult a cost-effective procedure for monitoring, fault detection, performance analyses, operation and maintenance. As a result, many problems affecting BIPV systems go undetected. In order to carry out effective automatic fault detection procedures, we need a performance indicator that is reliable and that can be applied on many PV systems at a very low cost. The existing approaches for analyzing the performance of PV systems are often based on the Performance Ratio (PR), whose accuracy depends on good solar irradiation data, which in turn can be very difficult to obtain or cost-prohibitive for the BIPV owner. We present an alternative fault detection procedure based on a performance indicator that can be constructed on the sole basis of the energy production data measured at the BIPV systems. This procedure does not require the input of operating conditions data, such as solar irradiation, air temperature, or wind speed. The performance indicator, called Performance to Peers (P2P), is constructed from spatial and temporal correlations between the energy output of neighboring and similar PV systems. This method was developed from the analysis of the energy production data of approximately 10,000 BIPV systems located in Europe. The results of our procedure are illustrated on the hourly, daily and monthly data monitored during one year at one BIPV system located in the South of Belgium. Our results confirm that it is possible to carry out automatic fault detection procedures without solar irradiation data. P2P proves to be more stable than PR most of the time, and thus constitutes a more reliable performance indicator for fault detection procedures. We also discuss the main limitations of this novel methodology, and we suggest several future lines of research that seem promising to improve on these procedures.

Adaptabilidad de la energía solar fotovoltaica sobre fachadas urbanas

La integración de energía solar fotovoltaica en edificios es una estrategia energética y medioambiental acreditada con un futuro muy prometedor. Para su promoción, tan importantes son los incentivos económicos, el desarrollo legislativo y las mejoras tecnológicas, como la investigación en nuevas herramientas de simulación y análisis que sirvan de apoyo en el diseño de nuevas estrategias energéticas y medioambientales. La tesis pretende contribuir en esta labor de difusión, planteándose cómo incide la radiación solar sobre los entornos urbanos, con la finalidad de generar un procedimiento que obtenga el potencial de integración de energía solar fotovoltaica en fachadas. Se trabajará para lograr un método simplificado de simulación y cálculo de la energía producida en base a sistema de información geográfica (SIG), con la capacidad de generar mapas solares que muestren el potencial de integración arquitectónica fotovoltaica sobre fachadas a partir de la cartografía catastral. El nombre asignado para este método es AdaptaSolar. Con este objetivo se ha desarrollado la presente tesis que se estructura en seis capítulos, más las conclusiones y anexos, con los que se pretende definir y desarrollar el tema de tesis planteado. El primer capítulo, realiza una visión general sobre la integración arquitectónica de los sistemas fotovoltaicos, junto con el planteamiento y objetivos de la tesis. El segundo capítulo, plasma una revisión profunda sobre del estado actual de los temas relacionados con el planteamiento y objeto de esta tesis: estimación de la radiación solar, estimación de la radiación solar sobre fachadas y estudio del potencial de integración arquitectónica fotovoltaica en fachadas. El capítulo tres, de carácter teórico, recoge un análisis general sobre la energía solar fotovoltaica, desde el efecto fotovoltaico hasta las aplicaciones e instalación, sin perder de vista los objetivos generales marcados en la tesis. Destaca, sobre todo, la catalogación de las tecnologías fotovoltaicas más prometedoras, además, de la recopilación y análisis de los factores más importantes que influyen en la captación fotovoltaica. El capítulo cuatro, también de carácter teórico, profundiza en el modo en el que la radiación solar incide sobre la superficie terrestre, analizando la naturaleza de la radiación solar y la geometría del sistema solar. Destaca el exhaustivo análisis de los principales métodos de cálculo para la estimación de la radiación solar sobre superficies horizontales e inclinadas, especialmente, la recopilación de modelos numéricos para la estimación de la irradiación difusa. El capítulo cinco, desarrolla el concepto de integración fotovoltaica en edificios, sus principales características y las ventajas que reporta. Además, realiza un análisis muy interesante sobre la situación actual de la integración fotovoltaica en edificios en España. Por último, incluye una selección de los proyectos más relevantes de integración arquitectónica. El capítulo seis, desarrolla el método planteado para la evaluación de la adaptabilidad de energía solar fotovoltaica en entonos urbanos, objeto de la tesis. Siendo éste, por tanto, el capítulo más experimental y significativo de la misma. Este capítulo está dividido en seis subapartados, siendo los dos primeros la introducción y el modelo geométrico planteado para el desarrollo del método. Los tres siguientes apartados, muestra el desarrollo del método en tres fases consecutivas: estimación de la insolación, la radiación y el potencial de integración de sistemas fotovoltaicos sobre fachada. En cada uno de estos apartados, se realiza la correspondiente validación y análisis de resultados, mediante la generación de una serie de gráficas que muestran el comportamiento anual del sol sobre las fachadas y el efecto adverso del sombreado entre edificios. El sexto apartado de este capítulo, detalla los pasos seguidos para efectuar la implementación del método experimental en el SIG, desde la preparación y obtención de los datos cartográficos de partida, hasta el desarrollo y ejecución del algoritmo principal. Además se muestran los resultados obtenidos para un área urbana concreta de la ciudad de Madrid. Por último, el capítulo siete recoge las conclusiones más importantes del trabajo y propone una serie de líneas de investigación futuras que se consideran relevantes para la continuidad del método planteado en la tesis.