Risk assessment and preventive measures

A prerequisite for preventive measures is to diagnose erosive tooth wear and to evaluate the different etiological factors in order to identify persons at risk. No diagnostic device is available for the assessment of erosive defects. Thus, they can only be detected clinically. Consequently, erosion not diagnosed in the early stage may render timely preventive measures difficult. In order to assess the risk factors, patient should record their dietary intake for a distinct period of time. Then a dentist can determine the erosive potential of the diet. Particularly, patients with more than four dietary acid intakes have a higher risk for erosion when other risk factors (such as holding the drink in the mouth) are present. Regurgitation of gastric acids (reflux, vomiting, alcohol abuse, etc.) is a further important risk factor for the development of erosion which has to be taken into account. Based on these analyses, an individually tailored preventive program may be suggested to the patients. It may comprise dietary advice, optimization of fluoride regimes, stimulation of salivary flow rate, use of buffering medicaments and particular motivation for nondestructive toothbrushing habits with a low abrasive toothpaste. The frequent use of fluoride gel and fluoride solution in addition to fluoride toothpaste offers the opportunity to reduce somewhat abrasion of tooth substance. It is also advisable to avoid abrasive tooth cleaning and whitening products, since they may remove the pellicle and may render teeth more susceptible to erosion. Since erosion, attrition and abrasion often occur simultaneously all causative components must be taken into consideration when planning preventive strategies.

Pregnancy and birth cohort resources in europe: a large opportunity for aetiological child health research

BACKGROUND During the past 25 years, many pregnancy and birth cohorts have been established. Each cohort provides unique opportunities for examining associations of early-life exposures with child development and health. However, to fully exploit the large amount of available resources and to facilitate cross-cohort collaboration, it is necessary to have accessible information on each cohort and its individual characteristics. The aim of this work was to provide an overview of European pregnancy and birth cohorts registered in a freely accessible database located at http://www.birthcohorts.net. METHODS European pregnancy and birth cohorts initiated in 1980 or later with at least 300 mother-child pairs enrolled during pregnancy or at birth, and with postnatal data, were eligible for inclusion. Eligible cohorts were invited to provide information on the data and biological samples collected, as well as the timing of data collection. RESULTS In total, 70 cohorts were identified. Of these, 56 fulfilled the inclusion criteria encompassing a total of more than 500,000 live-born European children. The cohorts represented 19 countries with the majority of cohorts located in Northern and Western Europe. Some cohorts were general with multiple aims, whilst others focused on specific health or exposure-related research questions. CONCLUSION This work demonstrates a great potential for cross-cohort collaboration addressing important aspects of child health. The web site, http://www.birthcohorts.net, proved to be a useful tool for accessing information on European pregnancy and birth cohorts and their characteristics.

Statistical characterization and development of summary measures of non-normal distributions of nuclear morphometry data from prostate cancer cells for use as prognostic indicators

Nuclear morphometry (NM) uses image analysis to measure features of the cell nucleus which are classified as: bulk properties, shape or form, and DNA distribution. Studies have used these measurements as diagnostic and prognostic indicators of disease with inconclusive results. The distributional properties of these variables have not been systematically investigated although much of the medical data exhibit nonnormal distributions. Measurements are done on several hundred cells per patient so summary measurements reflecting the underlying distribution are needed.^ Distributional characteristics of 34 NM variables from prostate cancer cells were investigated using graphical and analytical techniques. Cells per sample ranged from 52 to 458. A small sample of patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), representing non-cancer cells, was used for general comparison with the cancer cells.^ Data transformations such as log, square root and 1/x did not yield normality as measured by the Shapiro-Wilks test for normality. A modulus transformation, used for distributions having abnormal kurtosis values, also did not produce normality.^ Kernel density histograms of the 34 variables exhibited non-normality and 18 variables also exhibited bimodality. A bimodality coefficient was calculated and 3 variables: DNA concentration, shape and elongation, showed the strongest evidence of bimodality and were studied further.^ Two analytical approaches were used to obtain a summary measure for each variable for each patient: cluster analysis to determine significant clusters and a mixture model analysis using a two component model having a Gaussian distribution with equal variances. The mixture component parameters were used to bootstrap the log likelihood ratio to determine the significant number of components, 1 or 2. These summary measures were used as predictors of disease severity in several proportional odds logistic regression models. The disease severity scale had 5 levels and was constructed of 3 components: extracapsulary penetration (ECP), lymph node involvement (LN+) and seminal vesicle involvement (SV+) which represent surrogate measures of prognosis. The summary measures were not strong predictors of disease severity. There was some indication from the mixture model results that there were changes in mean levels and proportions of the components in the lower severity levels. ^

Intracranial Aneurysm Rupture Is Predicted by Measures of Solar Activity.

OBJECTIVE The cause precipitating intracranial aneurysm rupture remains unknown in many cases. It has been observed that aneurysm ruptures are clustered in time, but the trigger mechanism remains obscure. Because solar activity has been associated with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity, we decided to study its association to aneurysm rupture in the Swiss population. METHODS Patient data were extracted from the Swiss SOS database, at time of analysis covering 918 consecutive patients with angiography-proven aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage treated at 7 Swiss neurovascular centers between January 1, 2009, and December 31, 2011. The daily rupture frequency (RF) was correlated to the absolute amount and the change in various parameters of interest representing continuous measurements of solar activity (radioflux [F10.7 index], solar proton flux, solar flare occurrence, planetary K-index/planetary A-index, Space Environment Services Center [SESC] sunspot number and sunspot area) using Poisson regression analysis. RESULTS During the period of interest, there were 517 days without recorded aneurysm rupture. There were 398, 139, 27, 12, 1, and 1 days with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 ruptures per day. Poisson regression analysis demonstrated a significant correlation of F10.7 index and RF (incidence rate ratio [IRR] = 1.006303; standard error (SE) 0.0013201; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.003719-1.008894; P < 0.001), according to which every 1-unit increase of the F10.7 index increased the count for an aneurysm to rupture by 0.63%. A likewise statistically significant relationship of both the SESC sunspot number (IRR 1.003413; SE 0.0007913; 95% CI 1.001864-1.004965; P < 0.001) and the sunspot area (IRR 1.000419; SE 0.0000866; 95% CI 1.000249-1.000589; P < 0.001) emerged. All other variables analyzed showed no significant correlation with RF. CONCLUSIONS We found greater radioflux, SESC sunspot number, and sunspot area to be associated with an increased count of aneurysm rupture. The clinical meaningfulness of this statistical association must be interpreted carefully and future studies are warranted to rule out a type-1 error.

Changes in blood lipids and their associations with changes in measures of height, weight and body mass index from age 8 to 18 years: Project Heartbeat!

A variety of studies indicate that the process of athrosclerosis begins in childhood. There was limited information on the association of the changes in anthropometric variables to blood lipids in school age children and adolescents. Previous longitudinal studies of children typically with insufficient frequency of observation could not provide sound inference on the dynamics of change in blood lipids. The aims of this analysis are (1) to document the sex- and ethnic-specific trajectory and velocity curves of blood lipids (TC, LDL-C, HDL-C and TG); (2) to evaluate the relationship of changes in anthropometric variables, such as height, weight and BMI, to blood lipids from age 8 to 18 years. ^ Project HeartBeat! is a longitudinal study designed to examine the patterns of serial change in major cardiovascular risk factors. Cohort of three different age levels, 8, 11 and 14 years at baseline, with a total of 678 participants were enrolled. Each member of these cohorts was examined three times per year for up to four years. ^ Sex- and ethnic-specific trajectory and velocity curves of blood lipids; demonstrated the complex and polyphasic changes in TC, LDL-C, HDL-C and TG longitudinally. The trajectory curves of TC, LDL-C and HDL-C with age showed curvilinear patterns of change. The velocity change in TC, HDL-C and LDL-C showed U-shaped curves for non-Blacks, and nearly linear lines in velocity of TG for both Blacks and non-Blacks. ^ The relationship of changes in anthropometric variables to blood lipids was evaulated by adding height, weight, or BMI and associated interaction terms separately to the basic age-sex models. Height or height gain had a significant negative association with changes in TC, LDL-C and HDL-C. Weight or BMI gain showed positive associations with TC, LDL-C and TC, and a negative relationship with HDL-C. ^ Dynamic changes of blood lipids in school age children and adolescents observed from this analysis suggested that using fixed screening criteria under the current NCEP guidelines for all ages 2–19 may not be appropriate for this age group. The association of increasing BMI or weight to an adverse blood lipid profile found in this analysis also indicated that weight or BMI monitoring could be a future intervention to be implemented in the pediatric population. ^

The association between CD4+ lymphocyte count and measures of body composition in HIV-infected men

Purpose. This project was designed to describe the association between wasting and CD4 cell counts in HIV-infected men in order to better understand the role of wasting in progression of HIV infection.^ Methods. Baseline and prevalence data were collected from a cross-sectional survey of 278 HIV-infected men seen at the Houston Veterans Affairs Medical Center Special Medicine Clinic, from June 1, 1991 to January 1, 1994. A follow-up study was conducted among those at risk, to investigate the incidence of wasting and the association between wasting and low CD4 cell counts. Wasting was described by four methods. Z-scores for age-, sex-, and height-adjusted weight; sex-, and age-adjusted mid-arm muscle circumference (MAMC); and fat-free mass; and the ratio of extra-cellular mass (ECM) to body-cell mass (BCM) $>$ 1.20. FFM, ECM, and BCM were estimated from bioelectrical impedance analysis. MAMC was calculated from triceps skinfold and mid-arm circumference. The relationship between wasting and covariates was examined with logistic regression in the cross-sectional study, and with Poisson regression in the follow-up study. The association between death and wasting was examined with Cox's regression.^ Results. The prevalence of wasting ranged from 5% (weight and ECM:BCM) to almost 14% (MAMC and FFM) among the 278 men examined. The odds of wasting, associated with baseline CD4 cell count $<$200, was significant for each method but weight, and ranged from 4.6 to 12.7. Use of antiviral therapy was significantly protective of MAMC, FFM and ECM:BCM (OR $\approx$ 0.2), whereas the need for antibacterial therapy was a risk (OR 3.1, 95% CI 1.1-8.7). The average incidence of wasting ranged from 4 to 16 per 100 person-years among the approximately 145 men followed for 160 person-years. Low CD4 cell count seemed to increase the risk of wasting, but statistical significance was not reached. The effect of the small sample size on the power to detect a significant association should be considered. Wasting, by MAMC and FFM, was significantly associated with death, after adjusting for baseline serum albumin concentration and CD4 cell count.^ Conclusions. Wasting by MAMC and FFM were strongly associated with baseline CD4 cell counts in both the prevalence and incidence study and strong predictors of death. Of the two methods, MAMC is convenient, has available reference population data, may be the most appropriate for assessing the nutritional status of HIV-infected men. ^

La salud oral de grupos poblacionales vulnerables : experiencias de educación para la salud bucal en niños con discapacidad en Perú y Argentina

Dos elementos permiten reflexionar sobre el futuro de los seres humanos: La buena noticia es que a través de la ciencia los seres humanos pueden vivir más de 80 años. La noticia negativa es que de acuerdo con las estadísticas, entre los 60 y 80 años de edad las personas van a sufrir algún tipo de discapacidad. Esta situación hace que muchos países trabajen hoy para hacer una contribución, por pequeña que parezca, que ayude a mantener los aspectos sanitarios susceptibles a la enfermedad. Estas contribuciones están directamente vinculadas a las acciones de atención primaria, educación en salud oral en las instituciones educativas que reúnen a los niños con discapacidad, sus familias y profesores, y teniendo en cuenta que los bebés y los niños con discapacidad se encuentran en vulnerabilidad desde la salud oral. Los objetivos de este trabajo son: compartir experiencias de educación para la salud oral en instituciones educativas especiales en Perú y Argentina y proporcionar recursos didácticos a través de herramientas educativas que permitan ayudar a los niños, maestros, padres y comunidad en el aprendizaje del cuidado de la salud oral en especial las instituciones educativas de ambos países. Desde la población en estudio se seleccionó una muestra aleatoria entre 2.010 escuelas especiales en la región de Lima, Perú y Mendoza, Argentina. Se acordaron temas básicos de promoción de la salud bucal como: higiene bucal, salud bucal, enfermedades prevalentes, caries, enfermedad periodontal, maloclusión, medidas de prevención, nutrición, etc. y se realizó una encuesta entre los padres para evaluar los conocimientos en los tópicos mencionados y el grado de compromiso de los maestros para aplicar estrategias de higiene en el ámbito escolar. Conclusión: La creación de espacios comunitarios para insertar la salud oral es un desafío. Ambos países desarrollan metodologías similares, resultando muy rica la experiencia de compartir las actividades que realizan cada uno de ellos. La premisa “Lo normal es ser diferente" es compartida por nosotros desde la idea de personalizar e individualizar las acciones con un fin común. En Promoción de la Salud Bucal para niños especiales Perú y Argentina se encuentran en la misma dirección.

Enzyme activity, body measures and heart mass of Sepia officinalis sampled in the English Channel and Adriatic Sea

In the eurythermal cuttlefish Sepia officinalis, performance depends on hearts that ensure systemic oxygen supply over a broad range of temperatures. We therefore aimed to identify adjustments in energetic cardiac capacity and underlying mitochondrial function supporting thermal acclimation and adaptation that could be crucial for the cuttlefish's competitive success in variable environments. Two genetically distinct cuttlefish populations were acclimated to 11, 16 and 21°C. Subsequently, skinned and permeabilised heart fibres were used to assess mitochondrial functioning by means of high-resolution respirometry and a substrate-inhibitor protocol, followed by measurements of cardiac citrate synthase and cytosolic enzyme activities. Temperate English Channel cuttlefish had lower mitochondrial capacities but larger hearts than subtropical Adriatic cuttlefish. Warm acclimation to 21°C decreased mitochondrial complex I activity in Adriatic cuttlefish and increased complex IV activity in English Channel cuttlefish. However, compensation of mitochondrial capacities did not occur during cold acclimation to 11°C. In systemic hearts, the thermal sensitivity of mitochondrial substrate oxidation was high for proline and pyruvate but low for succinate. Oxygen efficiency of catabolism rose as temperature changed from 11 to 21°C via shifts to oxygen-conserving oxidation of proline and pyruvate and via reduced relative proton leak. The changes observed for substrate oxidation, mitochondrial complexes, relative proton leak and heart mass improve energetic efficiency and essentially seem to extend tolerance to high temperatures and reduce associated tissue hypoxia. We conclude that cuttlefish sustain cardiac performance and, thus, systemic oxygen delivery over short- and long-term changes of temperature and environmental conditions by multiple adjustments in cellular and mitochondrial energetics.

European legislation and implementation measures in the management of construction and demolition waste.

The intense activity in the construction sector during the last decade has generated huge volumes of construction and demolition (C&D) waste. In average, Europe has generated around 890 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste per year. Although now the activity has entered in a phase of decline, due to the change of the economic cycle, we don’t have to forget all the problems caused by such waste, or rather, by their management which is still far from achieving the overall target of 70% for C&D waste --excludes soil and stones not containing dangerous substances-- should be recycled in the EU Countries by 2020 (Waste Framework Directive). But in fact, the reality is that only 50% of the C&D waste generated in EU is recycled and 40% of it corresponds to the recycling of soil and stones not containing dangerous substances. Aware of this situation, the European Countries are implementing national policies as well as different measures to prevent the waste that can be avoidable and to promote measures to increase recycling and recovering. In this aspect, this article gives an overview of the amount of C&D waste generated in European countries, as well as the amount of this waste that is being recycled and the different measures that European countries have applied to solve this situation.

Microtermometría, direcciones de flujo hidrotermal y metalogenia del yacimiento de tungsteno de Pasto Bueno (Ancash, Perú)

El yacimiento de Pasto Bueno se localiza en el extremo nordeste del Batolito de la Cordillera Blanca, comprende diversas vetas, generalmente subverticales, asociadas al stock cuarzomonzonitico de Consuzo, datado como Terciario Superior, que intruye a las pizarras de la fm. Chicama y cuarcitas de la fm. Chimu. Las principales vetas discurren con direccion N-S cortando al stock, aunque tambien existen sistemas NE-SW asi como NW-SE encajados sobre las rocas metamorficas. La mineralogia de mena reconocida comprende wolframita (hubnerita), tetraedrita/tenantita, esfalerita y galena, en una ganga de cuarzo, fluorita, sericita, pirita y carbonatos, ademas de molibdenita, calcopirita, bornita, arsenopirita, enargita (luzonita), stolzita, scheelita, zinnwaldita, topacio, tungstita y arsenico nativo. Estudios previos han caracterizado Pasto Bueno como un yacimiento con una gran componente de greisen, con una evolucion de las vetas desde un episodio temprano esteril de 400 oC, depositando la mineralizacion economica en torno a los 220-250 oC y con un evento postumo de 175-220 oC rico en CO2. La precipitacion de la wolframita se produjo a partir de un fluido netamente hidrotermal, sin embargo, dicha precipitacion estuvo controlada por el aporte al sistema de aguas externas meteoricas y/o metamorficas. El trabajo llevado a cabo ha consistido en la realizacion de un estudio microtermometrico de las 3 principales estructuras del distrito: Consuelo, Alonso-Fenix y Chabuca, para caracterizar la evolucion del fluido mineralizador desde el stock (veta Consuelo) hacia las rocas metasedimentarias de las fm. Chicama y Chimu (manto Alonso-Fenix y veta Chabuca). Para ello se realizo un muestreo sobre el evento principal de mineralizacion. Dichas muestras se sometieron a un estudio petrografico de lamina gruesa para seleccionar las muestras optimas para el posterior estudio microtermometrico. Previamente a la obtencion de las medidas de temperatura de fusion del hielo (criotermometria) y de homogenizacion del fluido; se realizo un estudio de petrografia de inclusiones fluidas para caracterizarlas y seleccionar las representativas. La interpretacion de los resultados ha permitido confirmar la existencia de un episodio previo de alta temperatura, superior a 282 oC y un evento mineralizador con temperaturas en torno a los 200-240 oC. Sin embargo, las salinidades obtenidas son mucho menores que las previamente publicadas, en torno al 5 % peso eq. NaCl, frente a 11-17 % peso eq. NaCl. Tambien se ha observado un fluido postumo rico en CO2, pero de temperatura superior, en torno a los 270 oC. Los gradientes isotermicos muestran dos focos para dichos fluidos hidrotermales: el primero asociado al stock en la veta Consuelo, y el segundo en la veta Chabuca, asociado a la zona de cabalgamiento de las pizarras de la fm. Chicama sobre las cuarcitas de la fm. Chimu. Este segundo foco puede corresponder con los aportes externos de aguas metamorficas. Para finalizar, se dan una serie de pautas para guiar las futuras exploraciones en el yacimiento. ABSTRACT The Pasto Bueno deposit is located at the northeastern end of the Cordillera Blanca Batholith. It comprises several veins, generally subvertical, associated with the quartz-monzonite stock of Consuzo, dated as Tertiary, which intrudes the Chicama fm. slates and the Chimu fm. quartzites. The main veins trend N-S cutting the stock, although there are also NE-SW and NWSE systems, hosted by the metamorphic rocks. The ore mineralogy comprises wolframite (hubnerite), tetrahedrite/tennantite, sphalerite and galena in a gangue of quartz, fluorite, sericite, pyrite and carbonates, and minor molybdenite, chalcopyrite, bornite, arsenopyrite, enargite (luzonite), stolzite, scheelite, zinnwaldite, topaz, tungstite and native arsenic. Previous studies have characterized Pasto Bueno as a deposit with a large component of greisen, with an evolution of the veins from an early barren 400 oC event , followed by economic mineralization of about 220-250 °C and a late event of 175 -220 oC rich in CO2. Wolframite precipitation occurred from a purely hydrothermal fluid; however, this precipitation was controlled by an external flux of meteoric and/or metamorphic waters. Microthermometric studies of the 3 main structures of the district (Consuelo, Alonso-Fenix and Chabuca veins) have been carried out to depict the evolution of the mineralizing fluid coming from the stock (Consuelo vein) into the metasedimentary rocks of the Chimu and Chicama fm. (Alonso-Fenix and Chabuca veins). The sampling was performed over the main event of mineralization. These samples were subject to a quick plate petrography study in order to select the optimal samples for further microthermometry studies. Before the freezing/heating measures, a fluid inclusion petrography study was done to characterize and select the representative F.I. Interpretation of results has confirmed the existence of a previous episode of higher temperature, over 282 °C, and a mineralizing event with temperatures of about 200-240 °C. However, obtained salinities, about 5 wt% NaCl equivalents, are much lower than those previously reported, about 11-17 wt% NaCl equivalents. A last fluid, rich in CO2, but of higher temperature, about 270 oC, has been characterized. Isothermal gradients show two foci for the hydrothermal fluids: the first one associated to the Consuzo stock as shown in the Consuelo vein, and the second one related to the thrust fault which places the Chicama fm. slates over the Chimu fm. quartzites in the Chabuca vein area. This second focus may correspond to an external input of metamorphic waters. Finally, some guidelines have been given to guide future explorations.

Spatial Planning Measures for the Enhancement of Urban Resilience Against Flooding Risk

Dentro del campo de la ciudad como lugar se analiza el concepto de planificación territorial y planeamiento espacial. Flooding is one of the main risks associated to many urban settlements in Spain and, indeed, elsewhere. The location of cities has traditionally ignored this type of risk as other locational criteria prevailed (communications, crop yields, etc.). Defence engineering has been the customary way to offset the risk but, nowadays, the opportunity costs of engineering works in urban areas has highlighted the interest of “soft measures” based on prevention. Early warning systems plus development planning controls rank among the most favoured ones. This paper reflects the results of a recent EU-financed research project on alternative measures geared to the enhancement of urban resilience against flooding. A city study in Spain is used as example of those measures.

Los programas municipales de ocupación guiada: instrumentos preferentes de habitabilidad básica versus la urbanización informal futura. El caso de Trujillo (Perú)

El crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización que ha experimentado el planeta en el último siglo se ha traducido, en contextos de pobreza, en la generación de tugurios y en el aumento de la población viviendo en condiciones de habitabilidad precaria (HaP) fruto de la urbanización informal. Situación que, según las estimaciones de Naciones Unidas continuará teniendo lugar en las próximas décadas, especialmente en las ciudades de las regiones menos desarrolladas. Este ha sido el problema específico que se ha querido atender con el presente trabajo: la búsqueda de un instrumento urbano que incida en la reducción de las tasas de precariedad habitacional urbana futuras, la búsqueda de instrumentos que eviten que ese aumento de la urbanización se traduzca en aumento de población condenada a vivir en tugurios durante décadas. Dicha búsqueda ha tenido lugar en el marco de la teoría de la Habitabilidad Básica (HaB) desarrollada por el ICHaBCátedra UNESCO de Habitabilidad Básica de la UPM. Una HaB que consiste en la satisfacción de las necesidades fundamentales de habitabilidad pero, a su vez, o más importante aún, en una esperanza de mejora y progreso paulatino de esas condiciones elementales entendida como herramienta de desarrollo y lucha contra la pobreza. Como herramienta básica, no se trata de ofrecer las condiciones ideales, sino de brindar un camino razonable, que se considera posible, para que miles de millones de personas que viven en HaP o parecen condenadas a tener que hacerlo, puedan acceder a mejores condiciones de vida en tiempos más cortos. Entre las políticas habitacionales no convencionales puestas en marcha desde Hábitat I en 1976, las de habilitación urbana progresiva, y más en particular, la Ocupación Guiada, resultan ser en contextos de escasez económica, el mejor instrumento para hacer frente a la urbanización informal, un instrumento paradigmático mínimo preferente de implantación ex novo de HaB. Lo es, por la atención prestada en la elección del suelo y la parcelación, las dos etapas cabecera del proceso, así como por los mecanismos implementados para atender la etapa de urbanización en su fase provisional, y por dejar la última etapa, la de la edificación de las viviendas, en manos de la población. El proceso de urbanización que se favorece es parecido al de los tugurios y ocupaciones ilegales en lo referente a las etapas y mecanismos de crecimiento. Sin embargo, la diferencia está en las condiciones en las que se produce, en los niveles de salubridad y de seguridad, y en la proyección de futuro. El Programa de Ocupación Guiada 'Alto Trujillo' (POG), puesto en marcha por la municipalidad de Trujillo (Perú) entre 1995 y 2006 fue concebido para hacer frente a los procesos de urbanización informal que estaban teniendo lugar en la ciudad y ha demostrado ser un mecanismo adecuado para garantizar el acceso regulado al suelo, las infraestructuras, los servicios básicos y la vivienda en condiciones de fuerte restricción económica mediante un cogestión acertada entre municipalidad, población y demás actores del proceso. El POG eligió un suelo no vulnerable y en continuidad con el tejido urbano, con la parcelación estableció el orden geométrico del asentamiento y reservó los espacios públicos destinados a equipamientos, zonas verdes y viario, y fijó las dimensiones de las parcelas, acompañó a la población en el proceso de ocupación guiada de las mismas, así como en el posterior desarrollo progresivo del asentamiento haciendo una fuerte apuesta por lo público, relegando la construcción de las viviendas al esfuerzo de los pobladores. Los POG municipales resultan ser un instrumento replicable siempre que se den cinco condiciones: la existencia de un marco institucional adecuado que contemple la descentralización de competencias, que haya interés y continuidad política en el gobierno local, acceso a suelo urbano disponible y voluntad de co-gestión con la población. El análisis del POG ha permitido elaborar una propuesta de replicabilidad del POG basada en la experiencia de soluciones ya implementadas, que han sido contrastadas empíricamente y analizadas para aprender de sus fortalezas, oportunidades, debilidades y amenazas, así como de sus aciertos y errores. La estrategia de replicabilidad del POG se plantea como alternativa a la urbanización informal con mecanismos mejorados para que las ciudades se desarrollen siguiendo unos parámetros mínimos de HaB y no a través de asentamientos informales que dificulten el progreso futuro de las familias que los habitan y de las mismas ciudades de las que forman parte. Esta propuesta de replicabilidad, que precisa ser adaptada a cada contexto, tenía una clara vocación: intentar ser instrumento en la región del planeta donde, según las estimaciones, en los próximos treinta años el crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización serán más fuertes: África Subsahariana. Por ello, con el apoyo de expertos mozambiqueños en temas de habitabilidad, se estudió la replicabilidad en Mozambique incorporando las medidas necesarias que darían respuesta a los condicionantes particulares del país. ABSTRACT The demographic growth and the urbanisation process that the planet has experienced in the last century has turned into the generation of slums and in the increase of population living in conditions of precarious habitability (HaP) result of the informal urbanisation, in contexts of poverty. According to the United Nations estimations, this situation will continue taking place in the next decades, especially in the cities of the least developed regions. The present work has wanted to attend this specific problem by the search of an urban instrument that has an impact on the reduction of the urban future precarious housing rates, a search of instruments that prevent that this urbanisation spread become an increase of population doomed to live in slums during decades. The above mentioned search has taken place in the frame of the Basic Habitability theory (HaB) developed by the ICHaB-Cátedra UNESCO of Basic Habitability of the UPM. HaB consists of the satisfaction of the fundamental habitability needs but, in turn, or still more important, it is the hope of improvement and gradual progress of these elementary conditions. The HaB is understood as a tool of development and fight against poverty. As a basic tool, it does not offer the ideal conditions, but it offers a reasonable way, which is considered to be possible, so that thousands of million persons who live in HaP or that seem to be doomed to have to do it, could gain access to better living conditions in shorter times. Between the non conventional housing policies started up from Habitat I in 1976, those of urban progressive fitting out, and more especially, the Guided Occupation, has turned out to be, in contexts of economic shortage, the best instrument to face the informal urbanisation, a preferential and minimum paradigmatic instrument of ex-novo HaB implementation. It is so due to the attention given to the appropriate site selection and the land allotment, both headboard stages of the process, as well as to the mechanisms implemented to attend the urbanisation stage in its provisional phase, and to leave the last stage, the building process, in population hands. The urbanisation process that is favored is similar to that of the slums and squatting in what concerns the stages and mechanisms of growth. Nevertheless, the difference is in the conditions in which it takes place, in the levels of health and safety, and in the future projection. The Program of Guided Occupation 'Alto Trujillo' (PGO), turned on by the Provincial City Hall of Trujillo (Peru) between 1995 and 2006, was conceived to face the processes of informal urbanisation that took place in the city and it has demonstrated to be a mechanism adapted to guarantee the regulated access to soil, infrastructures, basic services and housing in conditions of strong economic restriction by means of a succeeded co-management between municipality, population and other process actors. The PGO chose a non vulnerable soil in continuity with the urban fabric, with the land allotment established the settlement geometric order, reserved the public spaces allocated for urban facilities, green spaces and streets, and fixed the plot dimensions, accompanied the population in the plot guided occupation process, as well as in the later progressive settlement development betting strongly for the public components, relegating the housing construction to the settlers effort. The municipal PGO turn out to be a replicable instrument under five conditions: the existence of an institutional suitable frame that contemplates the decentralization competitions, interest and political continuity in the local government, access to urban available soil and will of co-management with the population. The PGO analysis has allowed to elaborate a replicability proposal of the PGO based on the experience of the already implemented solutions, which have been empirically confirmed and analyzed to learn of its strengths, opportunities, weaknesses and threats, as well as of its successes and mistakes. The replicability strategy of the PGO is considered an alternative to the informal urbanisation with improved mechanisms in order that the cities can develop following a few HaB's minimal parameters, but not through informal settlements that would make difficult the families future progress and that of the cities where they live. This replicability proposal, that needs to be adapted to every context, had a clear vocation: try to be an instrument in the region of the planet where, according to the estimations, in the next thirty years the demographic growth and the urbanisation process will be stronger: Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, with the support of Mozambican experts in habitability topics, the replicability was studied in Mozambique incorporating the necessary measures that would give response to the country's determinants.

Unemployment is the scourge, not youth unemployment per se. The misguided policy preoccupation with youth. CEPS Policy Brief No. 294, 26 June 2013

This Policy Brief argues that too much effort and political capital is being spent by the Commission and member states on being seen to be doing something quickly about youth unemployment when, in fact, the structural measures proposed will only have long-term effects. Expectations of immediate relief are running well above what can be delivered, especially at the EU level. Given the macroeconomic situation, no policy option will deliver a significant dent in either youth unemployment or unemployment in general. The EU policies on the table that are supposed to have an immediate effect, such as increased lending from the European Investment Bank to SMEs for the hiring of young people, will only have a very marginal impact on youth unemployment. Moreover, this impact will come mostly to the detriment of older unemployed persons excluded from such a scheme. Given the perceived need to ‘be seen to be doing something’, we fear that policies subsidising young workers de facto at the expense of older workers or, even worse, policies that subsidise older workers for not taking young people’s jobs, will proliferate. In fact, it is not at all clear that young people suffer more from being unemployed than older people, or even disproportionately more than older unemployed individuals. In particular, it is not clear that the much-publicised notion of a ‘lost generation’ with permanent ‘scars’ is relevant only to the young generation. The paper ends by highlighting the much-neglected policy option of encouraging labour mobility within the internal market. Although the Commission is ‘upgrading and modernising’ its tools, much more could be done in this area – to the benefit of the individuals concerned, the member states, and European integration in general.

La disoccupazione giovanile in tempo di crisi: un monito all’Europa (continentale) per rifondare il diritto del lavoro? = Youth Unemployment in Recessionary Times: a Caveat to (Continental) Europe to Reconstruct its Labour Law. WP C.S.D.L.E. "Massimo D'Antona" .INT - 91/2012

The current debate taking place in continental Europe on the need to reform labour law to reduce the duality between labour market insiders and outsiders, thus giving new employment opportunities to young people seems to be, at its best, a consequence of the crisis, or at its worst, an excuse. The considerable emphasis placed on the power of legislation to reduce youth unemployment prevents real labour market problems from being clearly identified, thus reducing the scope to adopt more effective measures. Action is certainly required to help young people during the current crisis, yet interventions should not be exclusively directed towards increased flexibility and deregulation. This paper questions the “thaumaturgic power” wrongly attributed to legislative interventions and put forward a more holistic approach to solve the problem of youth employment, by focusing on the education systems, school-to-work transition and industrial relations. As a comparative analysis demonstrates, in order to effectively tackle the issue of youth employment, it is not enough to reform labour law. High quality education systems, apprenticeship schemes, efficient placement and employment services, cooperative industrial relations and flexible wage determination mechanisms are the key to success when it comes to youth employment, not only in times of recession.

Study of consumer automotive preference with regard to fuel economy measures.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C.