Chitosan-dextran sulphate nanocapsule drug delivery system as an effective therapeutic against intraphagosomal pathogen Salmonella

Objectives: The ability to target conventional drugs efficiently inside cells to kill intraphagosomal bacteria has been a major hurdle in treatment of infective diseases. We aimed to develop an efficient drug delivery system for combating infection caused by Salmonella, a well-known intracellular and intraphagosomal pathogen. Chitosan dextran sulphate (CD) nanocapsules were assessed for their efficiency in delivering drugs against Salmonella. Methods: The CD nanocapsules were prepared using the layer-by-layer method and loaded with ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone. Antibiotic-loaded nanocapsules were analysed in vitro for their ability to enter epithelial and macrophage cells to kill Salmonella. In vivo pharmacokinetics and organ distribution studies were performed to check the efficiency of the delivery system. The in vivo antibacterial activity of free antibiotic and antibiotic loaded into nanocapsules was tested in a murine salmonellosis model. Results: In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that this delivery system can be used effectively to clear Salmonella infection, CD nanocapsules were successfully employed for efficient targeting and killing of the intracellular pathogen at a dosage significantly lower than that of the free antibiotic. The increased retention time of ciprofloxacin in the blood and organs when it was delivered by CD nanocapsules compared with the conventional routes of administration may be the reason underlying the requirement for a reduced dosage and frequency of antibiotic administration. Conclusions: CD nanocapsules can be used as an efficient drug delivery system to treat intraphagosomal pathogens, especially Salmonella infection, This delivery system might be used effectively for other vacuolar pathogens including Mycobacteria, Brucella and Legionella.

Draft genome of a commonly misdiagnosed multidrug resistant pathogen Candida auris

Background: Candida auris is a multidrug resistant, emerging agent of fungemia in humans. Its actual global distribution remains obscure as the current commercial methods of clinical diagnosis misidentify it as C. haemulonii. Here we report the first draft genome of C. auris to explore the genomic basis of virulence and unique differences that could be employed for differential diagnosis. Results: More than 99.5 % of the C. auris genomic reads did not align to the current whole (or draft) genome sequences of Candida albicans, Candida lusitaniae, Candida glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae; thereby indicating its divergence from the active Candida clade. The genome spans around 12.49 Mb with 8527 predicted genes. Functional annotation revealed that among the sequenced Candida species, it is closest to the hemiascomycete species Clavispora lusitaniae. Comparison with the well-studied species Candida albicans showed that it shares significant virulence attributes with other pathogenic Candida species such as oligopeptide transporters, mannosyl transfersases, secreted proteases and genes involved in biofilm formation. We also identified a plethora of transporters belonging to the ABC and major facilitator superfamily along with known MDR transcription factors which explained its high tolerance to antifungal drugs. Conclusions: Our study emphasizes an urgent need for accurate fungal screening methods such as PCR and electrophoretic karyotyping to ensure proper management of fungemia. Our work highlights the potential genetic mechanisms involved in virulence and pathogenicity of an important emerging human pathogen namely C. auris. Owing to its diversity at the genomic scale; we expect the genome sequence to be a useful resource to map species specific differences that will help develop accurate diagnostic markers and better drug targets.

Spread of Salmonella enterica in the body during systemic infection: unravelling host and pathogen determinants.

Salmonella enterica causes a range of life-threatening diseases in humans and animals worldwide. Current treatments for S. enterica infections are not sufficiently effective, and there is a need to develop new vaccines and therapeutics. An understanding of how S. enterica spreads in tissues has very important implications for targeting bacteria with vaccine-induced immune responses and antimicrobial drugs. Development of new control strategies would benefit from a more sophisticated evaluation of bacterial location, spatiotemporal patterns of spread and distribution in the tissues, and sites of microbial persistence. We review here recent studies of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) infections in mice, an established model of systemic typhoid fever in humans, which suggest that continuous bacterial spread to new infection foci and host phagocytes is an essential trait in the virulence of S. enterica during systemic infections. We further highlight how infections within host tissues are truly heterogeneous processes despite the fact that they are caused by the expansion of a genetically homogeneous microbial population. We conclude by discussing how understanding the within-host quantitative, spatial and temporal dynamics of S. enterica infections might aid the development of novel targeted preventative measures and drug regimens.

Manejo de mal seco (Pythium myriotylum) en quequisque (Xanthosoma sagittifolium L. Schott) mediante la siembra tardia, control de arvenses, enmiendas organicas y trichoderma spp. en Nueva Guinea, Nicaragua

El quequisque (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott.) pertenece a la familia Aráceas, es una de las raíces y tubérculos más importantes a nivel mundial. El principal problema que afecta el rendimiento es el mal seco ( Pythium myriotylum). Con el objetivo de evaluar el efecto de enmiendas orgánicas, Trichoderma y la siembra tardía en el manejo de mal seco ( Pythium myriotylum) en quequisque cv Blanco ( Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) en Nueva Guinea, se establecieron dos ensayos arreglados en diseño de bloques completos al azar. Ensayo I: Efecto de enmiendas orgánicas y Trichoderma spp. para el manejo de mal seco en vitroplantas establecidas en bancos con riego y control de arvenses, con tres bloques, seis tratamientos cada uno, ocho plantas por tratamiento por bloque. Ensayo II: Efecto de enmiendas orgánicas y trichoderma para el manejo de mal seco en vitroplantas establecidas en surcos sin riego y sin control de arvenses, con tres bloques, siete tratamientos, 15 plantas por tratamiento por bloque. Se evaluaron variables morfológicas y de rendimiento. Se realizó un análisis de varianza y prueba de separación de medias (Tukey, α = 0.05) a las variables morfológicas y de rendimiento. La siembra tardía de los ensayos I y II redujo el efecto de Pythium myriotylum sobre las plantas independientemente de los tratamientos evaluados. Las plantas tratadas con Trichoderma registraron mejor comportamiento morfológico y de rendimiento. La sobrevivencia de las plantas del Ensayo I fue de 70 % y en el Ensayo II fue de 83%, las plantas tratadas con Trichoderma registraron un porcentaje de sobrevivencia de 83% en el Ensayo I y 94 % en el Ensayo II. El testigo (sin aplicación) en el Ensayo I registró un 63% de sobrevivencia y el Ensayo II un 67%. Dry + humega y Trichoderma spp. registraron mejor comportamiento morfológico y de rendimiento.

Efecto del mal seco (Pythium myriotylum Drechs) en campo y sombreadero sobre la agromorfología de quince accesiones de quequisque (Xanthosoma spp) desarrollo de síntomas y detección microbiológica

El quequisque ( Xanthosoma spp.), familia Aráceae, es importante para el consumo interno y la exportación en Nicaragua, tiene como problema principal al mal seco ( Pythium myriotylum Drechs ) , que causa la pérdida total del rendimiento. Se establecieron cuatro ensayos para evaluar el efecto del mal seco sobre agromorfología de 15 accesiones de quequisque en suelos con (scams) y sin antecedentes de mal seco (ssams). Ensayo I: se evaluó el efecto del mal seco sobre la agromorfología de 15 accesiones en scams en Nueva Guinea. Se empleó el diseño BCA con tres bloques. Ensayo II: se estableció en DCA, se evaluó el comportamiento de 7 de las accesiones en ssams y se comparó con el rendimiento obtenido en scams. Ensayo III: se cultivó raíces de plantas infectadas en los medios de cultivo AN, V-8 y PARC y dilución en serie del scams para verificar la presencia de P myriotylum . Ensayo IV: se evaluó el desarrollo de síntomas de la enfermedad en las raíces, se establecieron 14 accesiones en scams en bolsas de polietileno (15 plantas por accesión) en sombreadero. Todas las accesiones desarrollaron mal seco, produjeron plantas débiles de 30-40 cm de altura, con tres hojas máximo y ningún rendimiento. Las accesiones en ssams reportaron 3-12 t ha -1 de rendimientos promedios. Las plantas en scams registrar on 91-100 % de pérdidas en el rendimiento. La infección en las raíces ocurre a partir de los 21 días después de la siembra, la planta genera nuevas raíces que también se infectan y muere por agotamiento de las reservas. La dilución en serie no resultó en el aislamiento del patógeno. Sembrar raíces recién infectadas resultó en la presencia de micelios del hongo en los medios V-8 y PARC.

Efecto de enmiendas organicas, trichoderma, microorganismos eficientes y metalaxil en el manejo de mal seco (Pythium myriotylum Drechs) en quequisque (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) en suelo infectado en maceteras, mayo 2009-octubre 2010

El mal seco (Pythium myriotylum Drechs) reduce 90-100% la producción de quequisque. Con intención de aportar a la solución del problema se establecieron dos ensayos en maceteras, mayo 2009-octubre 2010, en esquema de diseño completo al azar (DCA). El objetivo fue evaluar el efecto de compost, humus de lombriz, dry, dry + humega, humega, trichoderma, microorganismos eficientes y metalaxil sobre el comportamiento agronómico de las plantas de quequisque (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) infectadas con Pythium myriotylum. Ensayo I: Efecto de enmiendas orgánicas y trichoderma en vitroplantas (compost, humus de lombriz, dry, dry + humega, humega, trichoderma, testigo negativo (-) (suelo esterilizado a 105 oC por 24 horas) y testigo positivo (+) (suelo infectado sin ninguna aplicación)). Se emplearon 20 observaciones por tratamiento. Se utilizaron vitroplantas del cultivar Quequisque Blanco. Se empleó suelo con antecedentes de mal seco proveniente de Nueva Guinea. Ensayo II: Efecto de trichoderma, microorganismos eficientes y metalaxil en plantaspropagadas convencionalmente (trichoderma, EM, metalaxil, testigo (-) (suelo esterilizado a 220 ºC por 48 horas) y testigo (+) (suelo infectado sin ninguna aplicación)). Se emplearon 11 observaciones por tratamiento. Se evaluaron variables morfológicas, de rendimiento, raíz y sobrevivencia de las plantas. En el Ensayo I los tratamientos compost y testigo (-) fueron significativamente superiores en las variables morfológicas excepto el número de hijos. No hubo diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos en rendimiento, a excepción del largo de cormos donde humus de lombriz registró los cormos demenor longitud. Las plantas en compost, humus de lombriz y testigo (-) presentaron raíces al momento de la cosecha, las plantas de los demás tratamientos estaban muertas. En el Ensayo II el tratamiento metalaxil registró plantas significativamente superiores en altura, ancho y largo de la hoja y diámetro del pseudotallo a 32 y 74 dds. En las dos evaluaciones finales (127 y 193 dds) no hubo diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos en las variables morfológicas. Todas las plantas presentaron escaso crecimiento, producción y pocas raíces. A la cosecha las plantas presentaban un rango de sobrevivencia de 70-100%.

Chemical contaminants, pathogen exposure and general health status of live and beach-cast Washington sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni)

Analyses of blood and liver samples from live captured sea otters and liver samples from beachcast sea otter carcasses off the remote Washington coast indicate relatively low exposure to contaminants, but suggest that even at the low levels measured, exposure may be indicated by biomarker response. Evidence of pathogen exposure is noteworthy - infectious disease presents a potential risk to Washington sea otters, particularly due to their small population size and limited distribution. During 2001 and 2002, 32 sea otters were captured, of which 28 were implanted with transmitters to track their movements and liver and blood samples were collected to evaluate contaminant and pathogen exposure. In addition, liver samples from fifteen beachcast animals that washed ashore between 1991 and 2002 were analyzed to provide historical information and a basis of reference for values obtained from live otters. The results indicate low levels of metals, butyltins, and organochlorine compounds in the blood samples, with many of the organochlorines not detected except polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and a few aromatic hydrocarbons detected in the liver of the live captured animals. Aliphatic hydrocarbons were measurable in the liver from the live captured animals; however, some of these are likely from biogenic sources. A significant reduction of vitamin A storage in the liver was observed in relation to PCB, dibutyltin and octacosane concentration. A significant and strong positive correlation in vitamin A storage in the liver was observed for cadmium and several of the aliphatic hydrocarbons. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) cytochrome P450 induction was elevated in two of 16 animals and may be potentially related to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon exposure. Mean concentration of total butyltin in the liver of the Washington beach-cast otters was more than 15 times lower than the mean concentration reported by Kannan et al. (1998) for Southern sea otters in California. Organochlorine compounds were evident in the liver of beach-cast animals, despite the lack of large human population centers and development along the Washington coast. Concentrations of PCBs and chlordanes (e.g., transchlordane, cis-chlordane, trans-nonachlor, cis-nonachlor and oxychlordane) in liver of Washington beach-cast sea otters were similar to those measured in Aleutian and California sea otters, excluding those from Monterey Bay, which were higher. Mean concentrations of 1,1,1,- trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophyenyl)ethanes (DDTs) were lower, and mean concentrations of cyclohexanes (HCH, e.g., alpha BHC, beta BHC, delta BHC and gamma BHC) were slightly higher in Washington beach-cast otters versus those from California and the Aleutians. Epidemiologically, blood tests revealed that 80 percent of the otters tested positive for morbillivirus and 60 percent for Toxoplasma, the latter of which has been a significant cause of mortality in Southern sea otters in California. This is the first finding of positive morbillivirus titers in sea otters from the Northeast Pacific. Individual deaths may occur from these diseases, perhaps more so when animals are otherwise immuno-compromised or infected with multiple diseases, but a population-threatening die-off from these diseases singly is unlikely while population immunity remains high. The high frequency of detection of morbillivirus and Toxoplasma in the live otters corresponds well with the cause of death of stranded Washington sea otters reported herein, which has generally been attributable to infectious disease. Washington’s sea otter population continues to grow, with over 1100 animals currently inhabiting Washington waters; however, the rate of growth has slowed over recent years. The population has a limited distribution and has not yet reached its carrying capacity and as such, is still considered at high risk to catastrophic events. (PDF contains 189 pages)

Is epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) specific fungus of fishes a primary pathogen?: an opinion

Earlier findings on epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) and the present observation of the authors on transmission of EUS to snakehead (Channa sp.) without skin damage provide evidence to suggest that the invasive fungus associated with EUS is a primary pathogen.

First description of a novel Weissella species as an opportunistic pathogen for rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) in China

Six strains of Gram-positive, catalase-negative, non-motile, irregular short rod-shaped Weissella bacteria, with width and length of 0.5-0.6 and 1.2-2.7 mu m were isolated from diseased rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) in winter of 2007 at a commercial fishery in Jingmen, Hubei province, China. The diseased rainbow trout exhibited hemorrhage in eyes, anal region, intestine and abdomen wall, petechia of liver, some fish with hydrocele in stomach. Six isolates had identical biochemical reactions, phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA sequences, amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA), enzymatic profile analysis and antimicrobial susceptibility results, indicating as a single clonal outbreak. But all were different from any other validated twelve Weissella species in the term of physiological and biochemical characters. It is indicated that isolates are phylogenetically closer to Weissella halotolerans, Weissella viridescens and Weissella minor on 16S rDNA phylogenetic analysis result, than to W halotolerans and W viridescens on the result of ARDRA study and enzymatic profile analysis. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was used to scan effective drugs for the therapy of this disease. Experimental infection assays with one isolate were conducted and pathogenicity (by intraperitoneal injection) was demonstrated in rainbow trout O. mykiss (Walbaum) and crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) fingerlings. Because no Weissella was detected in fish feedstuffs and pond water, the source of this pathogen remains unknown, and Weissella isolates were regarded as an opportunistic pathogen for rainbow trout. This is the first report of Weissella strains which can cause disease of cultured fish in the world. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.