Nanohardness and contact angle of Si wafers implanted with N and C and Al alloy with N by plasma ion implantation

Surfaces of silicon wafers implanted with N and C, respectively, and aluminum 5052 implanted with N alone by plasma immersion ion implantation WHO were probed by a nanoindentor and analyzed by the contact-angle method to provide information on surface nanohardness and wettability. Silicon nitride and silicon carbide are important ceramic materials for microelectronics, especially for high-temperature applications. These compounds can be synthesized by high-dose ion implantation. The nanohardness of a silicon sample implanted with 12-keV nitrogen PIII (with 3 X 10(17) cm(-2) dose) increased by 10% compared to the unimplanted sample, in layers deeper than the regions where the formation of the Si,N, compound occurred. A factor of 2.5 increase in hardness was obtained for C-implanted Si wafer at 35 keV (with 6 X 10(17) cm(-2) dose), again deeper than the SiC-rich layer, Both compounds are in the amorphous state and their hardness is much lower than that of the crystalline compounds, which require an annealing process after ion implantation. In the same targets, the contact angle increased by 65% and 35% for N- and C-implanted samples, respectively. Compared to the Si target, the nitrogen PIII-irradiated Al 5052 (wish 15 keV) showed negligible change in its hydrophobic character after ion implantation. Its near-surface nanohardness measurement showed a slight increase for doses of 1 X 10(17) cm(-2). We have been searching for an AlN layer of the order of 1000 A thick, using such a low-energy PIII process, but oxide formation during processing has precluded its synthesis. (C) 2002 Elsevier B.V. B.V. All rights reserved.

Electrochemistry of organometallic compounds. Part III. Oxidations of methyl derivatives of organocobalt(III) complexes with delocalized electronic structure in dimethylformamide

The influence of the equatorial ligand on the electrochemical oxidation of the compounds [H3CCo(chel)B], where chel is bis (dimethylglyoximato), (DH)2; bis(salicylaldehyde)ethylenediimine, salen; bis(salicylaldehyde) o-phenylenediimine, salophen; bis(salicylaldehyde)cyclohexylenediimine, salcn; bis(acetylacetone) ethylenediimine, bae; and where B is pyridine when chel is (DH2), and dimethylformamide (DMF) when chel represents a Schiff base (salen, salcn, salophen and bae), was studied by means of cyclic voltammetry in DMF, 0.2 M in tetraethylammonium perchlorate, between 25 and -25°C, with a platinum disk working electrode. Absorption spectra in the visible and near ultraviolet regions for these compounds in DMF at 25°C were obtained. The complexes exhibit a reversible one-electron oxidation, at -20°C with scan rates >0.5 V s-; chemical reactions following electron transfer are not detected under these conditions. At slower potential or higher temperatures, the oxidized product decomposes chemically in a solvent-assisted (or nucleophile-assisted) reaction, yielding products which are electroactive in the applied potential range. The behavior of the [H3CCo (DH2)py] derivative is better described as a quasi-reversible charge transfer followed by an irreversible chemical reaction. Experimental evidence suggests that in the case of the [H3CCo(bae)] derivative at -20°C, the reactive -species is pentacoordinated and weakly adsorbed at the electrode surface. The value of E 1 2 and the energies of the first two absorption bands in the visible spectra reveal the ability of the studied complexes to donate and to delocalize electronic charge. © 1982.

Water masses and circulation in the surface layers of the Caribbean at 66ºW

[EN] A meridional hydrographic section was made in August–September 1997 at 66°W from the coast of Venezuela to Woods Hole aboard the R/V Knorr. In this report, we concentrate on near surface measurements in the Caribbean. The data show two distinct water masses with different origins. From approximately 14°N to Puerto Rico, Caribbean Surface Water and Subtropical Under Water with their source in the North Atlantic are found, as previously observed. From Venezuela to approximately 13°N, a less saline water mass with its source in the Tropics and South Atlantic is found. Within the southern portion of the section, two different velocity patterns are observed, namely, an eastward flow with a subsurface maximum near the coast of Venezuela, and a surface intensified westward jet with Velocities of 130 cm s−1 in midbasin.

Parapoxvirus: basi genomiche della patogenesi

Parapoxvirus (PPV) are member of a genus in the family poxviridae which currently encompasses four species: the prototype orf virus (OV), bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) and parapoxvirus of New Zealand red deer (PVNZ). PPVs cause widespread, but localized diseases of small and large ruminants and they can also be transmitted to man. Knowledge of the molecular biology of PPV is still limited as compared to orthopoxviruses, especially vaccinia virus (VACV). The PPV genome displays a high G+C content and relatively small size for poxvirus. Coventional electron microscopy displays PPV virions with ovoid shape and slightly smaller in size than the brickshaped orthopoxviruses. The most striking feature, which readily enables identification of PPV, is a tubule-like structure that surrounds the particle in a spiral fashion. PPV genome organization and content is very similar to that of other poxviruses, the central region contain 88 genes which are present in all poxviruse, in contrast the terminal regions are variable and contain a set of genes unique to the genus PPV. Genes in the near-terminal regions of the genome are frequently not essential for growth in cultured cells encoding factors with important roles in virushost interactions including modulating host immune responses and determining host range. Recently it was suggested that the open reading frames (ORFs) 109 and 110 of the OV genome have a major role in determining species specificity during natural infection in sheep and goats. This hypothesis is based on the analysis of a few number of sequences of different sheep and goats viral isolates. PPV replicate into the cytoplasm of infected cells and produce three structurally different infectious particles: the intracellular mature virions (IMV), intracellular enveloped virions (IEV) and the extracellular enveloped virions (EEV). The vaccinia A33R and A34R hotologue proteins encoded by the ORFS 109 and 110 are expressed in the envelope of the IEV and EEV. The F1L immunodominant protein of orf virus is the major component of the surface tubule structure of the IMV and can post-translationaly insert into membranes via Cterminal, hydrofobic anchor sequence like its orthologue VACV H3L protein. Moreover the F1L protein binds to glycosaminoglycans on the cell surface and has an important role in IMV adsorption to mammalian cells. In this study we investigated the morphogenesis of the PPV through the construction of a mutant virus deleted of the F1L protein. A study of the deleted virus life cycle was conducted in different type of cells and its morphology was observed with electron microscopy. It was demonstared that F1L protein have important role in morphogenesis and infectivity. Moreover it is essential to determine the spiral fashion of the tubule like structure of the virion surface. Some pathogenetic aspects of the PPV infection were studied, in particular the protein implicated in the host range were analysed in detail. An experimental infection with OV and PCPV was conducted in goats and sheep. After infection, the severity of the lesions were comparable in both the animal species. The OV did not result in severe disease neither in sheep nor in goats, suggesting that host factors, rather than virus strain characteristics, may play an important role in the pathogenesis of the Parapoxvirus infections. The PCPV failed to produce any lesion in both sheep and goats, ruling out the possibility of any recombination between PCPV and OV during natural infection in these animal species. The phylogenetic analysis of the ORFs 109 and 110 from several goats and sheep viral isolates showed a clustering based on the antigenic content of the protein that was independent from species and geographic origin.

Decay of imprinted surface waves in polymers

CONCLUSIONS The focus of this work was the investigation ofanomalies in Tg and dynamics at polymer surfaces. Thethermally induced decay of hot-embossed polymer gratings isstudied using laser-diffraction and atomic force microscopy(AFM). Monodisperse PMMA and PS are selected in the Mwranges of 4.2 to 65.0 kg/mol and 3.47 to 65.0 kg/mol,respectively. Two different modes of measurement were used:the one mode uses temperature ramps to obtain an estimate ofthe near-surface glass temperature, Tdec,0; the other modeinvestigates the dynamics at a constant temperature aboveTg. The temperature-ramp experiments reveal Tdec,0 valuesvery close to the Tg,bulk values, as determined bydifferential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The PMMA of65.0 kg/mol shows a decreased value of Tg, while the PS samples of 3.47 and 10.3 kg/mol (Mwnear-surface Tg. The transition widthbetween the onset of an amplitude reduction and a finalstate is smaller in the case of PS than in the case of PMMA.This suggests a higher degree of cooperation between thepolymer chains for PMMA than for PS chains even near thesurface. A reduction of the investigated near-surface region byusing smaller grating constants and AFM did not show achange in the near-surface Tdec,0. Decay experiments were performed at a variety ofconstant temperatures. Master plots are produced by shifting the decay curves, on the logarithmic time scale,with respect to a reference curve at Tref. From thisprocedure shift factors were extracted. An Arrhenius analysis of the shift factors reveals adecreasing non-Arrhenius (fragile) behavior with molecular weight for PMMA. PS is fragile for all Mw asexpected for linear polymers. Non-Arrhenius behavior allowsone to fit the shift factors to the William-Landel-Ferry(WLF) equation. The WLF parameters for the varying molecular weights ofPMMA and PS were extracted and compared to the values frombulk rheology measurements. Assuming cg1=16+/-2 at Tg, assuggested by Angell, the glass temperature was determinedfrom the dynamic decay experiments. Within the experimentalerrors, the values for Tg,surf(c1=16) and T_g,bulk(c1=16)tend to be smaller than Tdec,0 and Tg,bulk fromtemperature-ramp and DSC measurements, but confirm thecourse of the values with increasing Mw. The comparison of the fragilities (temperaturedependence of the polymer properties at Tg) near the surfaceand in the bulk shows a higher fragility for PS near thesurface, a lower one for PMMA with molecular weights of 4.2and 65.0 kg/mol. The different surface behavior of PS istraced back to a lower degree of cooperation and a largerfree volume fraction.

Arctic Winds in the “Twentieth Century Reanalysis”

Climate in the European part of the Arctic underwent a rapid warming between the 1910s and the 1930s. Previous studies have addressed the role of atmospheric circulation in this period based on geopotential height fields because observations of upper-level winds in the Arctic are rare. Here we analyse winds over the Arctic and specifically over Spitsbergen in the “Twentieth Century Reanalyses” (20CR). We compare in situ upper-air wind measurements performed in 1912 and 1913 in Spitsbergen with six-hourly 20CR data. Furthermore, we compare monthly-to-seasonal 20CR winds at 700 hPa over the European Arctic with statistically reconstructed winds at 3 km altitude. Finally, we analyse long-term trends in Arctic winds in 20CR. The general agreement between observed upper-air winds and 20CR on the day-to-day scale is rather poor, which is not surprising given the paucity of observations in the Arctic at that time that constrain 20CR. In contrast, the seasonally averaged winds (which represent a larger spatial scale) in 20CR compare well with statistically reconstructed winds. The analysis of long term near-surface wind time series in 20CR shows arguably artificial trends from 1871 to around the 1950s over sparsely observed regions, particularly oceanic regions. Densely observed regions such as Europe or the USA show no such trends. This analysis shows that great care needs to be taken when working with 20CR in the Arctic and other sparsely observed regions.

Reanalysis-driven climate simulation over CORDEX North America domain using the Canadian Regional Climate Model, version 5: model performance evaluation

The performance of reanalysis-driven Canadian Regional Climate Model, version 5 (CRCM5) in reproducing the present climate over the North American COordinated Regional climate Downscaling EXperiment domain for the 1989–2008 period has been assessed in comparison with several observation-based datasets. The model reproduces satisfactorily the near-surface temperature and precipitation characteristics over most part of North America. Coastal and mountainous zones remain problematic: a cold bias (2–6 °C) prevails over Rocky Mountains in summertime and all year-round over Mexico; winter precipitation in mountainous coastal regions is overestimated. The precipitation patterns related to the North American Monsoon are well reproduced, except on its northern limit. The spatial and temporal structure of the Great Plains Low-Level Jet is well reproduced by the model; however, the night-time precipitation maximum in the jet area is underestimated. The performance of CRCM5 was assessed against earlier CRCM versions and other RCMs. CRCM5 is shown to have been substantially improved compared to CRCM3 and CRCM4 in terms of seasonal mean statistics, and to be comparable to other modern RCMs.

Analysis of polygonal cracking patterns in chloride-bearing terrains on Mars: Indicators of ancient playa settings

The ancient southern highlands on Mars (~3.5 Gyr old) contain > 600 regions that display spectral evidence in the infrared for the presence of chloride-bearing materials. Many of these locations were previously reported to display polygonal cracking patterns. We studied more than 80 of the chloride-bearing terrains using high-resolution (0.25-0.5 m/pixel) images, as well as near-infrared spectral data, to characterize the surface textures and the associated cracking patterns and mineralogies. Our study indicates that ~75% of the studied locations display polygonal cracks that resemble desiccation cracks, while some resemble salt expansion/thrust polygons. Furthermore, we detect, spectrally, the presence of smectites in association with ~30% of the studied fractured terrains. We note that smectites are a special class of swelling clay minerals that can induce formation of large desiccation cracks. As such, we suggest that the cracking patterns are indicative of the presence of smectite phyllosilicates even in the absence of spectral confirmation. Our results suggest that many chloride-bearing terrains have a lacustrine origin and a geologic setting similar to playas on Earth. Such locations would have contained ephemeral lakes that may have undergone repeated cycles of desiccation and recharging by a near-surface fluctuating water table in order to account for the salt-phyllosilicates associations. These results have notable implications for the ancient hydrology of Mars. We propose that the morphologies and sizes of the polygonal cracks can be used as paleoenvironmental, as well as lithological, indicators that could be helpful in planning future missions.

Topoclimatological case-study of Alpine pastures near the Albula Pass in the eastern Swiss Alps

Alpine grasslands are an important source of fodder for the cattle of Alpine farmers. Only during the short summer season can these pastures be used for grazing. With the anticipated climate change, it is likely that plant production – and thus the fodder basis for the cattle – will be influenced. Investigating the dependence of biomass production on topoclimatic factors will allow us to better understand how anticipated climate change may influence this traditional Alpine farming system. Because small-scale topoclimatological variations of the main meteorological variables: temperature, humidity, precipitation, shortwave incoming radiation and wind speed are not easily derived from available long-term climate stations in mountainous terrain, it was our goal to investigate the topoclimatic variations over the pastures belonging to the Alp Weissenstein research station north of the Albula Pass in the eastern Swiss Alps. We present a basic assessment of current topoclimatic conditions as a site characterization for ongoing ecological climate change studies. To be able to link short-term studies with long-term climate records, we related agrometeorological measurements with those of surrounding long-term sites run by MeteoSwiss, both on valley bottoms (Davos, Samedan), and on mountain tops (Weissfluhjoch, Piz Corvatsch). We found that the Davos climate station north of the study area is most closely correlated with the local climate of Alp Weissenstein, although a much closer site (Samedan) exists on the other side of the Albula Pass. Mountain top stations, however, did not provide a convincing approximation for the climate at Alp Weissenstein. Direct comparisons of near-surface measurements from a set of 11 small weather stations distributed over the domain where cattle and sheep are grazed indicate that nocturnal minimum air temperature and minimum vapor pressure deficit are mostly governed by the altitudinal gradient, whereas daily maxima – including also wind speed – are more strongly depending on vegetation cover and less on the altitude.

A Noachian source region for the "Black Beauty" meteorite, and a source lithology for Mars surface hydrated dust?

The Martian surface is covered by a fine-layer of oxidized dust responsible for its red color in the visible spectral range (Bibring et al., 2006; Morris et al., 2006). In the near infrared, the strongest spectral feature is located between 2.6 and 3.6 mu m and is ubiquitously observed on the planet (Jouglet et al., 2007; Milliken et al., 2007). Although this absorption has been studied for many decades, its exact attribution and its geological and climatic implications remain debated. We present new lines of evidence from laboratory experiments, orbital and landed missions data, and characterization of the unique Martian meteorite NWA 7533, all converging toward the prominent role of hydroxylated ferric minerals. Martian breccias (so-called "Black Beauty" meteorite NWA7034 and its paired stones NWA7533 and NWA 7455) are unique pieces of the Martian surface that display abundant evidence of aqueous alteration that occurred on their parent planet (Agee et al., 2013). These dark stones are also unique in the fact that they arose from a near surface level in the Noachian southern hemisphere (Humayun et al., 2013). We used IR spectroscopy, Fe-XANES and petrography to identify the mineral hosts of hydrogen in NWA 7533 and compare them with observations of the Martian surface and results of laboratory experiments. The spectrum of NWA 7533 does not show mafic mineral absorptions, making its definite identification difficult through NIR remote sensing mapping. However, its spectra are virtually consistent with a large fraction of the Martian highlands. Abundant NWA 7034/7533 (and paired samples) lithologies might abound on Mars and might play a role in the dust production mechanism. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A relationship between aerosol transport and compound-specific d13C land plant biomarker and pollen records

We examined near-surface, late Holocene deep-sea sediments at nine sites on a north-south transect from the Congo Fan (4°S) to the Cape Basin (30°S) along the Southwest African continental margin. Contents, distribution patterns and molecular stable carbon isotope signatures of long-chain n-alkanes (C27-C33) and n-alkanols (C22-C32) are indicators of land plant vegetation of different biosynthetic types, which can be correlated with concentrations and distributions of pollen taxa in the same sediments. Calculated clusters of wind trajectories and satellite Aerosol Index imagery afford information on the source areas for the lipids and pollen on land and their transport pathways to the ocean sites. This multidisciplinary approach on an almost continental scale provides clear evidence of latitudinal differences in lipid and pollen composition paralleling the major phytogeographic zonations on the adjacent continent. Dust and smoke aerosols are mainly derived from the western and central South African hinterland dominated by deserts, semi-deserts and savannah regions rich in C4 and CAM plants. The northern sites (Congo Fan area and northern Angola Basin), which get most of their terrestrial material from the Congo Basin and the Angolan highlands, may also receive some material from the Chad region. Very little aerosol from the African continent is transported to the most southerly sites in the Cape Basin. As can be expected from the present position of the phytogeographic zones, the carbon isotopic signatures of the n-alkanes and n-alkanols both become isotopically more enriched in 13C from north to south. The results of the study suggest that this combination of pollen data and compound-specific isotope geochemical proxies can be effectively applied in the reconstruction of past continental phytogeographic developments.

Turbulent flux and meteorological measurements during ARCTEX-2006 campaign

This dataset present result from the DFG- funded Arctic-Turbulence-Experiment (ARCTEX-2006) performed by the University of Bayreuth on the island of Svalbard, Norway, during the winter/spring transition 2006. From May 5 to May 19, 2006 turbulent flux and meteorological measurements were performed on the monitoring field near Ny-Ålesund, at 78°55'24'' N, 11°55'15'' E Kongsfjord, Svalbard (Spitsbergen), Norway. The ARCTEX-2006 campaign site was located about 200 m southeast of the settlement on flat snow covered tundra, 11 m to 14 m above sea level. The permanent sites used for this study consisted of the 10 m meteorological tower of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar- and Marine Research (AWI), the international standardized radiation measurement site of the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN), the radiosonde launch site and the AWI tethered balloon launch sites. The temporary sites - set up by the University of Bayreuth - were a 6 m meteorological gradient tower, an eddy-flux measurement complex (EF), and a laser-scintillometer section (SLS). A quality assessment and data correction was applied to detect and eliminate specific measurement errors common at a high arctic landscape. In addition, the quality checked sensible heat flux measurements are compared with bulk aerodynamic formulas that are widely used in atmosphere-ocean/land-ice models for polar regions as described in Ebert and Curry (1993, doi:10.1029/93JC00656) and Launiainen and Cheng (1995). These parameterization approaches easily allow estimation of the turbulent surface fluxes from routine meteorological measurements. The data show: - the role of the intermittency of the turbulent atmospheric fluctuation of momentum and scalars, - the existence of a disturbed vertical temperature profile (sharp inversion layer) close to the surface, - the relevance of possible free convection events for the snow or ice melt in the Arctic spring at Svalbard, and - the relevance of meso-scale atmospheric circulation pattern and air-mass advection for the near-surface turbulent heat exchange in the Arctic spring at Svalbard. Recommendations and improvements regarding the interpretation of eddy-flux and laser-scintillometer data as well as the arrangement of the instrumentation under polar distinct exchange conditions and (extreme) weather situations could be derived.

(Table 2) Integrated concentration, production and dissolution of silica in the water column of the southern Pacific

An intense diatom bloom developed within a strong meridional silicic acid gradient across the Antarctic Polar Front at 61°S, 170°W following stratification of the water column in late October/early November 1997. The region of high diatom biomass and the silicic acid gradient propogated southward across the Seasonal Ice Zone through time, with the maximum diatom biomass tracking the center of the silicic acid gradient. High diatom biomass and high rates of silica production persisted within the silicic acid gradient until the end of January 1998 (ca. 70 d) driving the gradient over 500 km to the south of its original position at the Polar Front. The bloom consumed 30 to >40 µM Si(OH)4 in the euphotic zone between about 60 and 66°S leaving near surface concentrations <2.5 µM and occasionally <1.0 µM in its wake. Integrated biogenic silica concentrations within the bloom averaged 410 mmol Si/m**2 (range 162-793 mmol Si/m**2). Average integrated silica production on two consecutive cruises in December 1997 and January 1998 that sampled the bloom while it was well developed were 27.5±6.9 and 22.6±20 mmol Si/m**2/d, respectively. Those levels of siliceous biomass and silica production are similar in magnitude to those reported for ice-edge diatom blooms in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, which is considered to be among the most productive regions in the Southern Ocean. Net silica production (production minus dissolution) in surface waters during the bloom was 16-21 mmol Si/m**2/d, which is sufficient for diatom growth to be the cause of the southward displacement of the silicic acid gradient. A strong seasonal change in silica dissolution : silica production rate ratios was observed. Integrated silica dissolution rates in the upper 100-150 m during the low biomass period before stratification averaged 64% of integrated production. During the bloom integrated dissolution rates averaged only 23% of integrated silica production, making 77% of the opal produced available for export to depth. The bloom ended in late January apparently due to a mixing event. Dissolution : production rate ratios increased to an average of 0.67 during that period indicating a return to a predominantly regenerative system. Our observations indicate that high diatom biomass and high silica production rates previously observed in the marginal seas around Antarctica also occur in the deep ocean near the Polar Front. The bloom we observed propagated across the latitudinal band overlying the sedimentary opal belt which encircles most of Antarctica implying a role for such blooms in the formation of those sediments. Comparison of our surface silica production rates with new estimates of opal accumulation rates in the abyssal sediments of the Southern Ocean, which have been corrected for sediment focusing, indicate a burial efficiency of <=4.6% for biogenic silica. That efficiency is considerably lower than previous estimates for the Southern Ocean.

Radiolarian events in the eastern Equatorial Pacific

The development of an orbitally tuned time scale for the ODP leg 138 sites provides biostratigraphers a very high resolution chronostratigraphic framework. With this framework we are better able to define which of the first and last appearances of species appear to be synchronous. In addition, the geographic distribution of sites provides the means with which the detailed spatial patterns of invasion of new species and the extinction of older species can be mapped. These maps not only provide information on the process of evolution, migration, and extinction, they can also be related to water mass distributions and near-surface circulation of the ocean. Of 39 radiolarian events studied at 11 sites in the eastern equatorial Pacific, 28 were found to have a minimum range in their estimated age that exceeded 0.15 m.y. The temporal pattern of first and last appearances of these diachronous events have coherent spatial patterns that indicate shifts in the areas of high oceanographic gradients over the past 10 Ma. These changes in the locations of high gradient regions suggest that the South Equatorial Current (SEC) was north of its present position prior to approximately 7 Ma. There was a southward shift in the northern boundary of this current between approximately 6 and 7 Ma, and the development of a relatively strong gradient between the northeastern and northwestern sites. Between approximately 3.7 and 3.4 Ma, there was a very slight northward shift in the northern boundary of the SEC and the steep gradients between the northeastern and northwestern sites may have disappeared. This change is thought to be associated with the closing of the Isthmus of Panama. The temporal-spatial patterns of diachronous events younger than 3.4 Ma are consistent with patterns of circulation in the modern ocean.

Stable isotope ratios of foraminifera from various DSDP/ODP sites

The equator to high southern latitude sea surface and vertical temperature gradients are reconstructed from oxygen isotope values of planktonic and benthic foraminifers for the following five time intervals: late Paleocene, early Eocene, early middle Eocene, late Eocene, and early Oligocene. Paleotemperatures are calculated using standard oxygen isotope/temperature equations with adjustments to account for (1) variations in sea water delta18O related to changes in global ice volume over time and (2) latitudinal gradients in surface water delta18O. These reconstructions indicate that sea-surface temperatures (SST) of the Southern Oceans in the early Eocene were as high as 15°C, whereas temperatures during the late Paleocene and early middle Eocene reached maximum levels of 10°-12°C. By the late Eocene and early Oligocene high latitude SST had declined to 6 and 4°C, respectively. For most of the early Paleogene, low latitude sub-tropical temperatures remained constant and well within the range of Holocene temperatures (24°-25°C) but by the late Eocene and early Oligocene declined to values in the range of 18° to 22°C. The late Paleogene apparent decline in tropical temperatures, however, might be artificial because of dissolution of near-surface foraminifera tests which biased sediment assemblages toward deeper-dwelling foraminifera. Moreover, according to recent plate reconstructions, it appears that the majority of sites upon which the late Eocene and early Oligocene tropical temperatures were previously established were located either in or near regions likely to have been influenced by upwelling. Global deepwater temperature on average paralleled southern ocean SST for most of the Paleogene. We speculate based on the overall timing and character of marine sea surface temperature variation during the Paleogene that some combination of both higher levels of greenhouse gases and increased heat transport was responsible for the exceptional high-latitude warmth of the early Eocene.