Microglial cells are involved in the susceptibility of NADPH oxidase knockout mice to 6-hydroxy-dopamine-induced neurodegeneration

We explored the impact of Nox-2 in modulating inflammatory-mediated microglial responses in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced Parkinson’s disease (PD) model. Nox1 and Nox2 gene expression were found to increase in striatum, whereas a marked increase of Nox2 expression was observed in substantia nigra (SN) of wild-type (wt) mice after PD induction. Gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA-lesioned mice exhibited a significant reduction in the apomorphine-induced rotational behavior, when compared to wt mice. Immunolabeling assays indicated that striatal 6-OHDA injections reduced the number of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the SN of wt mice. In gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA-lesioned mice the DA degeneration was negligible, suggesting an involvement of Nox in 6-OHDA-mediated SN degeneration. Gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA-lesioned mice treated with minocycline, a tetracycline derivative that exerts multiple anti-inflammatory effects, including microglial inhibition, exhibited increased apomorphine-induced rotational behavior and degeneration of DA neurons after 6-OHDA injections. The same treatment also increased TNF-α release and potentiated NF-κB activation in the SN of gp91phox-/--lesioned mice. Our results demonstrate for the first time that inhibition of microglial cells increases the susceptibility of gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA lesioned mice to develop PD. Blockade of microglia leads to NF-κB activation and TNF-α release into the SN of gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA lesioned mice, a likely mechanism whereby gp91phox-/- 6-OHDA lesioned mice may be more susceptible to develop PD after microglial cell inhibition. Nox2 adds an essential level of regulation to signaling pathways underlying the inflammatory response after PD induction

Effects of glucocorticoids on vascular NADPH oxidases and endothelial NO synthase

Glukokortikoide (GCs) stellen wichtige Hormone in der Regulation der metabolischen Homöostase dar. Synthetische GCs, wie Dexamethasone (DEX), spielen eine essentielle Rolle in der Behandlung inflammatorischer Krankheiten. Jedoch sind unter einer Dexamethason-Therapie zahlreiche Nebenwirkungen bekannt, so z.B. auch die Entwicklung einer Hypertonie, in deren Pathogenese oxidativer Stress eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. Obwohl sich in den vergangenen Jahren zahlreiche Studien zum Ziel setzten die GC-induzierte Hypertonie (GC-HT) aufzuklären, sind die genauen Mechanismen bis heute unklar. Eine erhöhte Expression von NADPH Oxidasen (Nox) und eine Entkopplung der endothelialen NO Synthase (eNOS), die Hauptquellen reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) im vaskulären System, tragen maßgeblich zur Pathogenese kardiovaskulärer Erkrankungen bei. Daher ist eine Beteiligung dieser Enzyme in GC-induziertem oxidativen Stress sehr wahrscheinlich. Folglich wurde die Hypothese aufgestellt, dass NADPH Oxidasen und eine entkoppelte eNOS die vielversprechendsten unter den zahlreichen involvierten pro- und anti-oxidativen Enzymen sind. Mit Fokus auf die oben genannten Systeme wurde in der vorliegenden Studie der Effekt von DEX mit Hilfe von in vivo (WKY Ratten) ebenso wie in vitro Experimenten (A7r5 und EA.hy 926 Zellen) untersucht. Dabei zeigte sich, dass Nox1, Nox4 und p22phox durch DEX unterschiedlich reguliert wurden. Nox1 wurde hoch-, Nox4 hingegen herunterreguliert, während p22phox unverändert blieb. Die Modufikation schien hierbei auf transkriptioneller und post-transkriptioneller Ebene stattzufinden. Durch die gegensätzliche Regulation von Nox1 und Nox4 bleibt die Nettowirkung der verschiedenen Nox Isoformen unklar. Immer mehr Studien bringen vaskulären oxidativen Stress mit der Pathogenese einer GC-HT in Zusammenhang, welche letztendlich zu einer verminderten Bioverfügbarkeit von Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) führt. Durch die eNOS produziertes NO stellt einen essentiellen Schutzfaktor der Blutgefäße dar. Eine verminderte NO-Bioverfügbarkeit könnte die Folge einer eNOS-Entkopplung darstellen, ausgelöst durch oxidativen Stress. Da die Verfügbarkeit von Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) entscheident ist für die Aktivität und enzymatische Kopplung der eNOS, beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit GC-induzierten Veränderungen in der BH4-Versorgung. Die Behandlung von EA.hy 926 Zellen mit DEX führte zu einer zeit- und konzentrationsabhängigen Herunterregulation von eNOS auf mRNA- und Proteinebene. Gleichzeitig wurde die Phosphorylierung an Serine1177 vermindert. Als maßgeblicher “Kopplungs-Schalter” kann BH4 endogen über zwei verschiedene Signalwege synthetisiert werden, welche durch die Enzyme GCH1 und DHFR reguliert werden. DEX führte zu einer zeit- und konzentrationsabhängigen Herunterregulation von BH4, BH2 und Biopterin, wobei ebenso das BH4 / BH2 -Verhältnis vermindert wurde. Beide Enzyme, GCH1 genauso wie DHFR, wurden auf mRNA- und Proteinebene herunterreguliert, was auf einen Effekt von GCs auf beide rnBH4-produzierenden Signalwege schließen lässt. Nach Behandlung mit DEX wurde die Produktion von NO in Endothelzellen maßgeblich vermindert. In ROS-Messungen zeigte sich eine Tendenz hin zu einer eNOS-Entkopplung, jedoch war es mit unserem experimentellen Aufbau nicht möglich, diese endgültig zu beweisen.rnZusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass die Behandlung mit GCs zu Veränderungen in beiden untersuchten Systemen, den NADPH Oxidasen ebenso wie dem eNOS-NO System, führte. DEX erhöhte die Expression von Nox1 in glatten Muskelzellen und reduzierte die Nox4-Expression in Endothelzellen. Gleichzeitig verminderte DEX die Verfügbarkeit von BH4 und inhibierte die Phosphorylierung / Aktivität von eNOS. Mithilfe weiterer Studien muss die endgültige Beteiligung von NADPH Oxidasen und einer eNOS-Entkopplung an oxidativem Stress in GC-HT abschließend aufgeklärt werden.rn

Altered heme catabolism by heme oxygenase-1 caused by mutations in human NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase

Human heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) carries out heme catabolism supported by electrons supplied from the NADPH through NADPH P450 reductase (POR, CPR). Previously we have shown that mutations in human POR cause a rare form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In this study, we have evaluated the effects of mutations in POR on HO-1 activity. We used purified preparations of wild type and mutant human POR and in vitro reconstitution with purified HO-1 to measure heme degradation in a coupled assay using biliverdin reductase. Here we show that mutations in POR found in patients may reduce HO-1 activity, potentially influencing heme catabolism in individuals carrying mutant POR alleles. POR mutants Y181D, A457H, Y459H, V492E and R616X had total loss of HO-1 activity, while POR mutations A287P, C569Y and V608F lost 50-70% activity. The POR variants P228L, R316W and G413S, A503V and G504R identified as polymorphs had close to WT activity. Loss of HO-1 activity may result in increased oxidative neurotoxicity, anemia, growth retardation and iron deposition. Further examination of patients affected with POR deficiency will be required to assess the metabolic effects of reduced HO-1 activity in affected individuals.

Deletion of P399_E401 in NADPH cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase results in partial mixed oxidase deficiency

P450 oxidoreductase (POR) is the electron donor for all microsomal P450s including steroidogenic enzymes CYP17A1, CYP19A1 and CYP21A2. We found a novel POR mutation P399_E401del in two unrelated Turkish patients with 46,XX disorder of sexual development. Recombinant POR proteins were produced in yeast and tested for their ability to support steroid metabolizing P450 activities. In comparison to wild-type POR, the P399_E401del protein was found to decrease catalytic efficiency of 21-hydroxylation of progesterone by 68%, 17α-hydroxylation of progesterone by 76%, 17,20-lyase action on 17OH-pregnenolone by 69%, aromatization of androstenedione by 85% and cytochrome c reduction activity by 80%. Protein structure analysis of the three amino acid deletion P399_E401 revealed reduced stability and flexibility of the mutant. In conclusion, P399_E401del is a novel mutation in POR that provides valuable genotype-phenotype and structure-function correlation for mutations in a different region of POR compared to previous studies. Characterization of P399_E401del provides further insight into specificity of different P450s for interaction with POR as well as nature of metabolic disruptions caused by more pronounced effect on specific P450s like CYP17A1 and aromatase.

NADPH P450 oxidoreductase: structure, function, and pathology of diseases

Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) is an enzyme that is essential for multiple metabolic processes, chiefly among them are reactions catalyzed by cytochrome P450 proteins for metabolism of steroid hormones, drugs and xenobiotics. Mutations in POR cause a complex set of disorders that often resemble defects in steroid metabolizing enzymes 17α-hydroxylase, 21-hydroxylase and aromatase. Since our initial reports of POR mutations in 2004, more than 200 different mutations and polymorphisms in POR gene have been identified. Several missense variations in POR have been tested for their effect on activities of multiple steroid and drug metabolizing P450 proteins. Mutations in POR may have variable effects on different P450 partner proteins depending on the location of the mutation. The POR mutations that disrupt the binding of co-factors have negative impact on all partner proteins, while mutations causing subtle structural changes may lead to altered interaction with specific partner proteins and the overall effect may be different for each partner. This review summarizes the recent discoveries related to mutations and polymorphisms in POR and discusses these mutations in the context of historical developments in the discovery and characterization of POR as an electron transfer protein. The review is focused on the structural, enzymatic and clinical implications of the mutations linked to newly identified disorders in humans, now categorized as POR deficiency.

NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase: roles in physiology, pharmacology, and toxicology

This is a report on a symposium sponsored by the American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and held at the Experimental Biology 2012 meeting in San Diego, California, on April 25, 2012. The symposium speakers summarized and critically evaluated our current understanding of the physiologic, pharmacological, and toxicological roles of NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR), a flavoprotein involved in electron transfer to microsomal cytochromes P450 (P450), cytochrome b(5), squalene mono-oxygenase, and heme oxygenase. Considerable insight has been derived from the development and characterization of mouse models with conditional Por deletion in particular tissues or partial suppression of POR expression in all tissues. Additional mouse models with global or conditional hepatic deletion of cytochrome b(5) are helping to clarify the P450 isoform- and substrate-specific influences of cytochrome b(5) on P450 electron transfer and catalytic function. This symposium also considered studies using siRNA to suppress POR expression in a hepatoma cell-culture model to explore the basis of the hepatic lipidosis phenotype observed in mice with conditional deletion of Por in liver. The symposium concluded with a strong translational perspective, relating the basic science of human POR structure and function to the impacts of POR genetic variation on human drug and steroid metabolism.

Nitric oxide down-regulates the expression of the catalytic NADPH oxidase subunit Nox1 in rat renal mesangial cells

Glomerular mesangial cells can produce high amounts of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here we analyzed the impact of NO on the ROS-generating system, particularly on the NADPH oxidase Nox1. Nox1 mRNA and protein levels were markedly decreased by treatment of mesangial cells with the NO-releasing compound DETA-NO in a concentration- and time-dependent fashion. By altering the cGMP signaling system with different inhibitors or activators, we revealed that the effect of NO on Nox1 expression is at least in part mediated by cGMP. Analysis of a reporter construct comprising the 2547 bp of the nox1 promoter region revealed that a stimulatory effect of IL-1beta on nox1 transcription is counteracted by an inhibitory effect of IL-1beta-evoked endogenous NO formation. Moreover, pretreatment of mesangial cells with DETA-NO attenuated platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB or serum stimulated production of superoxide as assessed by real-time EPR spectroscopy and dichlorofluorescein formation. Transfection of mesangial cells with siRNAs directed against Nox1 and Nox4 revealed that inhibition of Nox1, but not Nox4 expression, is responsible for the reduced ROS formation by NO. Obviously, there exists a fine-tuned crosstalk between NO and ROS generating systems in the course of inflammatory diseases.

Clinical, structural and functional implications of mutations and polymorphisms in human NADPH P450 oxidoreductase

Cytochrome P450 proteins are involved in metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics. In the endoplasmic reticulum a single nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) P450 oxidoreductase (POR) supplies electrons to all microsomal P450s for catalytic activity. POR is a flavoprotein that contains both flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide as cofactors and uses NADPH as the source of electrons. We have recently reported a number of POR mutations in the patients with disordered steroidogenesis. In the first report we had described missense mutations (A287P, R457H, V492E, C569Y, and V608F) identified in four patients with defects in steroid production. Each POR variant was produced as recombinant N-27 form of the enzyme in bacteria and as full-length form in yeast. Membranes from bacteria or yeast expressing normal or variant POR were purified and their activities were characterized in cytochrome c and CYP17A1 assays. Later we have published a larger study that described a whole range of POR mutations and characterized the mutants/polymorphisms A115V, T142A, M263V, Y459H, A503V, G539R, L565P, R616X, V631I, and F646del from the sequencing of patient DNA. We also studied POR variants Y181D, P228L, R316W, G413S, and G504R that were available in public databases or published literature. Three-dimensional structure of rat POR is known and we have used this structure to deduce the structure-function correlation of POR mutations in human. The missense mutations found in patients with disordered steroidogenesis are generally in the co-factor binding and functionally important domains of POR and the apparent polymorphisms are found in regions with lesser structural importance. A variation in POR can alter the activity of all microsomal P450s, and therefore, can affect the metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics even when the P450s involved are otherwise normal. It is important to study the genetic and biochemical basis of POR variants in human population to gain information about possible differences in P450 mediated reactions among the individuals carrying a variant or polymorphic form of POR that could impact their metabolism.

Modulation of human CYP19A1 activity by mutant NADPH P450 oxidoreductase

Mutations in NADPH P450 oxidoreductase (POR) cause a broad spectrum of human disease with abnormalities in steroidogenesis. We have studied the impact of P450 reductase mutations on the activity of CYP19A1. POR supported CYP19A1 activity with a calculated Km of 126 nm for androstenedione and a Vmax of 1.7 pmol/min. Mutations R457H and V492E located in the FAD domain of POR that disrupt electron transfer caused a complete loss of CYP19A1 activity. The A287P mutation of POR decreased the activities of CYP17A1 by 60-80% but had normal CYP19A1 activity. Molecular modeling and protein docking studies suggested that A287P is involved in the interaction of POR:CYP17A1 but not in the POR:CYP19A1 interaction. Mutations C569Y and V608F in the NADPH binding domain of POR had 49 and 28% of activity of CYP19A1 compared with normal reductase and were more sensitive to the amount of NADPH available for supporting CYP19A1 activity. Substitution of NADH for NADPH had a higher impact on C569Y and V608F mutants of POR. Similar effects were obtained at low/high (5.5/8.5) pH, but using octanol to limit the flux of electrons from POR to CYP19A1 inhibited activity supported by all variants. High molar ratios of KCl also reduced the CYP19A1 supporting activities of C569Y and V608F mutants of POR to a greater extent compared to normal POR and A287P mutant. Because POR supports many P450s involved in steroidogenesis, bone formation, and drug metabolism, variations in the effects of POR mutations on specific enzyme activities may explain the broad clinical spectrum of POR deficiency.

Studies on the interaction of NADPH cytochrome P-450 reductase and cytochromes P-450

Chemical modification of cytochrome P-450 reductase was used to determine the involvement of charged amino acids in the interaction between the reductase and two forms of cytochrome P-450. Acetylation of 11 lysine residues of the reductase with acetic anhydride yielded a 20-40% decrease in the K$\sb{\rm m}$ of the reductase for cytochrome P-450b or cytochrome P-450c. Modification of carboxyl groups on the reductase with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) and methylamine, glycine methyl ester, or taurine as nucleophiles inhibited the interaction with the cytochromes P-450. We were able to modify 4.0, 7.9, and 5.9 carboxyl groups using methylamine, glycine methyl ester, and taurine, respectively. The apparent K$\sb{\rm m}$ for cytochrome P-450c or cytochrome P-450b was increased 1.3 to 5.2 fold. There were varied effects on the V$\sb{\rm max}$. There was no significant change in the conformation of the reductase upon chemical modification. These results strongly suggest that electrostatic interactions as well as steric constraints play a role in the binding and electron transfer step(s) between the reductase and cytochrome P-450. Cytochrome P-450 protected 0.8 moles of carboxyl residues on the reductase from being modified with EDC. These protected amino acids on the reductase are presumably involved in binding to cytochrome P-450. The specific peptide containing these amino acids has been identified. ^

The roles of electrostatic charge pairing in the interaction between cytochrome P-450 and NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase

The cytochrome P450 enzyme catalysis requires two electrons transferred from NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (reductase) to P450. Electrostatic charge-pairing has been proposed to be one of the major forces in the interaction between P450 and reductase. In order to obtain further insight into the molecular basis for the protein interaction, I used two methods, chemical modification and specific anti-peptide antibodies, to study the involvement and importance of charged amino acid residues. Acetylation of lysine residues of P450c and P450b by acetic anhydride dramatically inhibited the reductase-supported P450c-dependent ethoxycoumarin hydroxylation activity, but P450 activity supported by cumene hydroperoxide is relatively unchanged. The modification of lysine residues of P450c and P450b did not grossly disturb the protein conformation as revealed by several spectral studies. This differential effect of lysine modification on the P450 activity in the system reconstituted with reductase versus the system supported by cumene hydroperoxide suggested an important role for P450 lysine residues in the interaction with reductase. Using $\rm\sp{14}C$-acetic anhydride, P450 lysine residues were labelled and further identified on P450c and P450b. Those lysine residues are at position 97, 271, 279, and 407 for P450c, and 251, 384, 422, 433, and 473 for P450b. Alignment of those identified lysine residues on P450c and P450b with amino acid residues identified in other studies indicated those residues reside in three major sequence areas. Modification of arginine residues of P450b by phenylglyoxal and 2, 3-butanedione have no significant effect on P450 activity either supported by NADPH and reductase or supported by cumene hydroperoxide. Further studies using $\rm\sp{14}C$-phenylglyoxal reveals that no incorporation of phenylglyoxal into P450b was found. These results demonstrated a predominant role of lysine residues of P450 in the electrostatic interaction with reductase. To understand the protein binding sites on each of P450 and reductase, I generated three anti-peptide antibodies against regions on reductase and five anti-peptide antibodies against five putative reductase binding sites on P450c. These anti-peptide antibodies were affinity purified and characterized on ELISA and by Western blot analysis. Inhibition experiments using these antibodies demonstrated that regions 109-120 and 204-220 of reductase are probably the two major binding sites for P450. The association of reductase with cytochromes P450 and cytochrome c may rely on different mechanisms. The data from experiments using anti-peptide (P450c) antibodies supports the important role of P450c lysine residues 271/279 and 458/460 in the interaction with reductase. ^

NADPH oxidase-independent formation of extracellular DNA traps by basophils

Basophils are primarily associated with a proinflammatory and immunoregulatory role in allergic diseases and parasitic infections. Recent studies have shown that basophils can also bind various bacteria both in the presence and the absence of opsonizing Abs. In this report, we show that both human and mouse basophils are able to produce mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and to form extracellular DNA traps upon IL-3 priming and subsequent activation of the complement factor 5 a receptor or FcεRI. Such basophil extracellular traps (BETs) contain mitochondrial, but not nuclear DNA, as well as the granule proteins basogranulin and mouse mast cell protease 8. BET formation occurs despite the absence of any functional NADPH oxidase in basophils. BETs can be found in both human and mouse inflamed tissues, suggesting that they also play a role under in vivo inflammatory conditions. Taken together, these findings suggest that basophils exert direct innate immune effector functions in the extracellular space.

Heterologous expression of equine CYP3A94 and investigation of a tunable system to regulate co-expressed NADPH P450 oxidoreductase levels.

The activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes depends on the enzyme NADPH P450 oxidoreductase (POR). The aim of this study was to investigate the activity of the equine CYP3A94 using a system that allows to regulate the POR protein levels in mammalian cells. CYP3A94 and the equine POR were heterologously expressed in V79 cells. In the system used, the POR protein regulation is based on a destabilizing domain (DD) that transfers its instability to a fused protein. The resulting fusion protein is therefore degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). Addition of "Shield-1" prevents the DD fusion protein from degradation. The change of POR levels at different Shield-1 concentrations was demonstrated by cytochrome c reduction, Western immunoblot analysis, and immunocytochemistry. The alteration of CYP3A94 activity was investigated using a substrate (BFC) known to detect CYP3A4 activity. Equine CYP3A94 was demonstrated to be metabolically active and its activity could be significantly elevated by co-expression of POR. Cytochrome c reduction was significantly increased in V79-CYP3A94/DD-POR cells compared to V79-CYP3A94 cells. Surprisingly, incubation with different Shield-1 concentrations resulted in a decrease in POR protein shown by Western immunoblot analysis. Cytochrome c reduction did not change significantly, but the CYP3A94 activity decreased more than 4-fold after incubation with 500 nM and 1 µM Shield-1 for 24 hours. No differences were obtained when V79-CYP3A94 POR cells with and without Shield-1 were compared. The basal activity levels of V79-CYP3A94/DD-POR cells were unexpectedly high, indicating that DD/POR is not degraded without Shield-1. Shield-1 decreased POR protein levels and CYP3A94 activity suggesting that Shield-1 might impair POR activity by an unknown mechanism. Although regulation of POR with the pPTuner system could not be obtained, the cell line V79-CYP3A94/DD-POR system can be used for further experiments to characterize the equine CYP3A94 since the CYP activity was significantly enhanced with co-expressed POR.

NADPH-CYTOCHROME P-450 REDUCTASE: EVIDENCE FOR TWO SEPARATE STRUCTURAL DOMAINS AND ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE MEMBRANE ASSOCIATED SEGMENT

Homogenous detergent-solubilized NADPH-Cytochrome P-450 reductase was incorporated into microsomes and liposomes. This binding occurred spontaneously at temperatures between 4(DEGREES) and 37(DEGREES) and appeared to involve hydrophobic forces as the binding was not disrupted by 0.5 M sodium chloride. This exogenously-added reductase was active catalytically towards native cytochrome P-450, suggesting an association with the microsomal membrane similar to endogenous reductase. Homogeneous detergent-solubilized reductase was disaggregated by Renex-690 micelles, confirming the presence of a hydrophobic combining region on the enzyme. In contrast to these results, steapsin protease-solubilized reductase was incapable of microsomal attachment and did not interact with Renex-690 micelles. Detergent-solubilized reductase (76,500 daltons) was converted into a form with the electrophoretic mobility of steapsin protease-solubilized reductase (68,000 daltons) and a 12,500 dalton peptide (as determined by polyacrylamide-SDS gel electrophoresis) when the liposomal-incorporated enzyme was incubated with steapsin protease. The 68,000 dalton fragment thus obtained had properties identical with steapsin protease-solubilized reductase, i.e. it was catalytically active towards cytochrome c but inactive towards cytochrome P-450 and did not bind liposomes. The 12,500 dalton fragment remained associated with the liposomes when the digest was fractionated by gel filtration, suggesting that this is the segment of the enzyme which is embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Thus, detergent-solubilized reductase appears to contain a soluble catalytic domain and a separate and separable membrane-binding domain. This latter domain is required for attaching the enzyme to the membrane and also to facilitate the catalytic interaction between the reductase and its native electron acceptor, cytochrome P-450. The membrane-binding segment of the reductase was isolated by preparative gel electrophoresis in SDS following its generation by proteolytic treatment of liposome-incorporated reductase. The peptide has a molecular weight of 6,400 as determined by gel filtration in 8 M guanidine hydrochloride and has an amino acid composition which is not especially hydrophobic. Following removal of SDS and dialysis out of 6 M urea, the membrane-binding peptide was unable to inhibit the activity of a reconstituted system containing purified reductase and cytochrome P-450. Moreover, when reductase and cytochrome P-450 were added to liposomes which contained the membrane-binding peptide, it was determined that mixed function oxidase activity was reconstituted as effectively as when vesicles without the membrane-binding peptide were used. Thus, the membrane-binding peptide was ineffective as an inhibitor of mixed function oxidase activity, suggesting perhaps that it facilitates catalysis by anchoring the catalytic domain of the reductase proximal to cytochrome P-450 (i.e. in the same mixed micelle) rather than through a specific interaction with cytochrome P-450. ^