Biomass and Stand Characteristics of a Highly Productive Mixed Douglas-Fir and Western Hemlock Plantation in Coastal Washington

Aboveground biomass predictive equations were developed for a highly productive 47-year-old mixed Douglas-fir and western hemlock stand in southwest Washington State to characterize the preharvest stand attributes for the Fall River Long-Term Site Productivity Study. The equations were developed using detailed biomass data taken from 31 Douglas-fir and 11 western hemlock trees within the original stand. The stand had an average of 615 live trees per hectare, with an average dbh of 35.6 cm (39.1 cm for Douglas-fir and 33.3 cm for western hemlock) and an average total tree height of 31.6 m (32.8 m for Douglas-fir and 30.2 m for western hemlock). Equations developed were of the form In Y = b(1) + b(2) In dbh, where Y = biomass in kg, dbh = diameter in cm at 1.3 m height, b(1) = intercept, and b(2) = slope of equation. Each tree part was estimated separately and also combined into total aboveground biomass. The total aboveground biomass estimation equations were In Y = -0.9950 + 2.0765 In dbh for Douglas-fir, and In Y = -1.6612 + 2.2321 In dbh for western hemlock. The estimate of the aboveground live-free biomass was of 395 Mg ha(-1) (235 Mg ha(-1) for Douglas-fir and 160 Mg ha(-1) for western hemlock), with 9.5, 29.3, 12.9, 308, and 32.7 Mg ha(-1) in the foliage, live branches, dead branches, stem wood, and stem hark, respectively. When compared with biomass estimates from six other studies, ranging in age from 22 to 110 years and from 96.3 to 636 Mg ha(-1), the biomass of the Fall River site was relatively high for its age, indicating very high productivity.

Effects of self-, chase and mixed self/cross-pollinations on pistil longevity and fruit set in Ceiba species (Bombacaceae) with late-acting self-incompatibility

Background and aims Late-acting self-incompatibility (LSI). in which selfed flowers fail to form fruits despite apparently successful growth of the pollen tubes to the ovules, is a contentious and still poorly understood phenomenon. Some studies have indicated pollen tube-pistil interactions, and major gene control. Others favour an early acting inbreeding depression explanation.Methods Experimental pollinations, including selfs (in a subsample of which the style was cut before pollen tubes reached the ovary), chase self/cross-pollinations, crosses, and mixed self/cross-pollinations were used to study floral/pistil longevity and effect on fruit set and seed yield in two Ceiba species known to have LSI.Results Self-pollinations, including those with a cut style, had extended floral longevity compared with unpollinated flowers. Chase pollinations in which cross-pollen was applied up to 3 h after selfing set fruits, but with reduced seed set compared with crosses. Those with cross-pollen applied at 4 and 8 h after self-pollination all failed to set fruits. Flowers subjected to 1 : 1 and 2 : 1 self/cross-pollinations all produced fruits but again with a significantly lower seed set compared with crosses.Conclusions Extended floral longevity initiated with self-pollen tubes growing in the style indicates some kind of pollen tube-pistil interaction. Fruit set only in chase pollinations up to 3 h implies that self-pollen tubes either grow more slowly in the style or penetrate ovules more slowly on arrival at the ovary compared with cross-tubes. This agrees with previous observations indicating that the incidence of penetrated ovules is initially lower in selfed compared with crossed pistils. However, the low seed yield from mixed pollinations indicates that self- and cross-pollen tubes arrive at the ovary and penetrate ovules more or less simultaneously. Possible explanations for these discordant results are discussed. (C) 2004 Annals of Botany Company.

Influence of removal of a non-native tree species Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth. on the regenerating plant communities in a tropical semideciduous forest under restoration in Brazil

Exotic species are used to trigger facilitation in restoration plantings, but this positive effect may not be permanent and these species may have negative effects later on. Since such species can provide a marketable product (firewood), their harvest may represent an advantageous strategy to achieve both ecological and economic benefits. In this study, we looked at the effect of removal of a non-native tree species (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia) on the understory of a semideciduous forest undergoing restoration. We assessed two 14-year-old plantation systems (modified taungya agroforestry system; and mixed plantation using commercial timber and firewood tree species) established at two sites with contrasting soil properties in São Paulo state, Brazil. The experimental design included randomized blocks with split plots. The natural regeneration of woody species (height ≥0.2 m) was compared between managed (all M. caesalpiniifolia trees removed) and unmanaged plots during the first year after the intervention. The removal of M. caesalpiniifolia increased species diversity but decreased stand basal area. Nevertheless, the basal area loss was recovered after 1 year. The management treatment affected tree species regeneration differently between species groups. The results of this study suggest that removal of M. caesalpiniifolia benefited the understory and possibly accelerated the succession process. Further monitoring studies are needed to evaluate the longer term effects on stand structure and composition. The lack of negative effects of tree removal on the natural regeneration indicates that such interventions can be recommended, especially considering the expectations of economic revenues from tree harvesting in restoration plantings.

Mixed colonies of two species of congeneric stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apinae, Meliponini) display environmentally-acquired and endogenously-produced recognition signals

Nestmate recognition is fundamental for the maintenance of social organization in insect nests. It is becoming well recognized that cuticle hydrocarbons mediate the recognition process, although the origin of recognition cues in stingless bees remains poorly explored. The present study investigates the effects of endogenously-produced and environmentally-acquired components in cuticular hydrocarbons in stingless bees. The tests are conducted using colonies of Plebeia droryana Friese and Plebeia remota Holmberg. Recognition tests are performed with four different groups: conspecific nestmates, conspecific non-nestmates, heterospecifics and conspecific, genetically-related individuals that emerge in a heterospecific nest. This last group is produced by introducing brood cells of P. droryana into a P. remota colony, and the resulting adult bees are tested for acceptance 10 days after emergence. For all groups, 15 individuals are sampled for chemical analysis. The results show the acceptance of all conspecific nestmates, and the rejection of almost every conspecific non-nestmate and every heterospecific bee. Genetically-related individuals emerging from heterospecific nests present intermediate rejection (66.7% rejection). Chemical analysis shows that P. droryana individuals emerging in a P. remota nest have small amounts of alkene and diene isomers found in P. remota cuticle that are not found in workers from the natal nest. The data clearly show that the majority of the compounds present in P. droryana cuticle are endogenously produced, although a few unsaturated compounds are acquired from the environment, increasing the chemical differences and, consequently, the rejection percentages.

Tree species richness, does it play a key role on a forest restoration plantation?

The Brazilian Atlantic forest is considered one of the world's biodiversity conservation hotspot. Today there is less than ten percent remaining. Therefore it is necessary to restore these ecosystems. There are many ways of achieving restoration's main goals, but there is a lack of ecological studies that analyzes tree species richness as a variable. Thus, this study's goal is to investigate if there is a difference between a forest restoration in a gradient of tree species richness that varies from 20, 60 to 120 species, by using the litterfall as an indicator. Every month, for one year the forest litter was collected from litter traps that were previously installed. Results revealed that stands produced litterfall by the increasing gradient of species was of 5,370, 5,909 and 6,432 kg ha(-1) yr(-1). The statistical analyses revealed no significant difference among them. Therefore this six-year-old forest restoration plantation shows no difference on the litter production by the tree species richness.

A natural freshwater origin for two chlamydial species, Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis and Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola, causing mixed infections in wild brown trout (Salmo trutta)

Gill disease in salmonids is characterized by a multifactorial aetiology. Epitheliocystis of the gill lamellae caused by obligate intracellular bacteria of the order Chlamydiales is one known factor; however, their diversity has greatly complicated analyses to establish a causal relationship. In addition, tracing infections to a potential environmental source is currently impossible. In this study, we address these questions by investigating a wild brown trout (Salmo trutta) population from seven different sites within a Swiss river system. One age class of fish was followed over 18 months. Epitheliocystis occurred in a site-specific pattern, associated with peak water temperatures during summer months. No evidence of a persistent infection was found within the brown trout population, implying an as yet unknown environmental source. For the first time, we detected 'Candidatus Piscichlamydia salmonis' and 'Candidatus Clavochlamydia salmonicola' infections in the same salmonid population, including dual infections within the same fish. These organisms are strongly implicated in gill disease of caged Atlantic salmon in Norway and Ireland. The absence of aquaculture production within this river system and the distance from the sea, suggests a freshwater origin for both these bacteria and offers new possibilities to explore their ecology free from aquaculture influences.

Variation in carbon content of tropical tree species from Ghana

Most research on carbon content of trees has focused on temperate tree species with little information existing on the carbon content of tropical tree species. This study investigated the variation in carbon content of selected tropical tree species and compared carbon content of Khaya spp from two ecozones in Ghana. Allometric equations developed for mixed-plantation stands for wet evergreen forest verified the expected strong relationship between tree volumes and dbh (r2>0.93) and volume and dbh2×height (r2>0.97). Carbon concentration, wood density and carbon content differed significantly among species. Volume at age 12 ranged from 0.01 to 1.04 m3 per tree, and wood density was highly variable among species, ranging from 0.27 to 0.76 g cm-3. This suggests that species specific density data is critical for accurate conversion of volumes derived from allometric relationships into carbon contents. Significant differences in density of Khaya spp existed between the wet and moist semi-deciduous ecozones. The baseline species-level information from this study will be useful for carbon accounting and development of carbon sequestration strategies in Ghana and other tropical African countries.

Natural regeneration in mediterranean mixed forests: effect of environmental conditions on the physiological optimum niche of the species = Regeneración natural en masas mixtas mediterráneas: efecto de las condiciones ambientales en el nicho óptimo fisiológico de las especies

Los montes Mediterráneos han experimentado múltiples cambios en las últimas décadas (tanto en clima como en usos), lo que ha conducido a variaciones en la distribución de especies. El aumento previsto de las temperaturas medias junto con la mayor variabilidad intra e inter anual en cuanto a la ocurrencia de eventos extremos o disturbios naturales (como periodos prolongados de sequía, olas de frío o calor, incendios forestales o vendavales) pueden dañar significativamente al regenerado, llevándolo hasta la muerte, y jugando un papel decisivo en la composición de especies y en la dinámica del monte. La amplitud ecológica de muchas especies forestales puede verse afectada, de forma que se esperan cambios en sus nichos actuales de regeneración. Sin embargo, la migración latitudinal de las especies en busca de mejores condiciones, podría ser una explicación demasiado simplista de un proceso mucho más complejo de interacción entre la temperatura y la precipitación, que afectaría a cada especie de un modo distinto. En este sentido tanto la capacidad de adaptación al estrés ambiental de una determinada especie, así como su habilidad para competir por los recursos limitados, podría significar variaciones dentro de una comunidad. Las características fisiológicas y morfológicas propias de cada especie se encuentran fuertemente relacionadas con el lugar donde cada una puede surgir, qué especies pueden convivir y como éstas responden a las condiciones ambientales. En este sentido, el conocimiento sobre las distintas respuestas ecofisiológicas observadas ante cambios ambientales puede ser fundamentales para la predicción de variaciones en la distribución de especies, composición de la comunidad y productividad del monte ante el cambio global. En esta tesis investigamos el grado de tolerancia y sensibilidad que cada una de las tres especies de estudio, coexistentes en el interior peninsular ibérico (Pinus pinea, Quercus ilex y Juniperus oxycedrus), muestra ante los factores abióticos de estrés típicos de la región Mediterránea. Nuestro trabajo se ha basado en la definición del nicho óptimo fisiológico para el regenerado de cada especie a través de la investigación en profundidad del efecto de la sequía, la temperatura y el ambiente lumínico. Para ello, hemos desarrollado un modelo de predicción de la tasa de asimilación de carbono que nos ha permitido identificar las condiciones óptimas ambientales donde el regenerado de cada especie podría establecerse con mayor facilidad. En apoyo a este trabajo y con la idea de estudiar el efecto de la sequía a nivel de toda la planta hemos desarrollado un experimento paralelo en invernadero. Aquí se han aplicado dos regímenes hídricos para estudiar las características fisiológicas y morfológicas de cada especie, sobre todo a nivel de raíz y crecimiento del tallo, y relacionarlas con las diferentes estrategias en el uso del agua de las especies. Por último, hemos estudiado los patrones de aclimatación y desaclimatación al frio de cada especie, identificando los periodos de sensibilidad a heladas, así como cuellos de botella donde la competencia entre especies podría surgir. A pesar de que el pino piñonero ha sido la especie objeto de la gestión de estas masas durante siglos, actualmente se encuentra en la posición más desfavorable para combatir el cambio global, presentado el nicho fisiológico más estrecho de las tres especies. La encina sin embargo, ha resultado ser la especie mejor cualificada para afrontar este cambio, seguida muy de cerca por el enebro. Nuestros resultados sugieren una posible expansión en el rango de distribución de la encina, un aumento en la presencia del enebro y una disminución progresiva del pino piñonero a medio plazo en estas masas. ABSTRACT Mediterranean forests have undergone multiple changes over the last decades (in both climate and land use), which have lead to variations in the distribution of species. The expected increase in mean annual temperature together with the greater inter and intra-annual variability in extreme events and disturbances occurrence (such as prolonged drought periods, cold or heat waves, wildfires or strong winds) can significantly damage natural regeneration, up to causing death, playing a decisive role on species composition and forest dynamics. The ecological amplitude for adaptation of many species can be affected in such a way that changes in the current regeneration niches of many species are expected. However, the forecasted poleward migration of species seeking better conditions could be an oversimplification of what is a more complex phenomenon of interactions among temperature and precipitation, that would affect different species in different ways. In this regard, either the ability to adapt to environmental stresses or to compete for limited resources of a single species in a mixed forest could lead to variations within a community. The ecophysiological and morphological traits specific to each species are strongly related to the place where each species can emerge, which species can coexist, and how they respond to environmental conditions. In this regard, the understanding of the ecophysiological responses observed against changes in environmental conditions can be essential for predicting variations in species distribution, community composition, and forest productivity in the context of global change. In this thesis we investigated the degree of tolerance and sensitivity that each of the three studied species, co-occurring in central of the Iberian Peninsula (Pinus pinea, Quercus ilex and Juniperus oxycedrus), show against the typical abiotic stress factors in the Mediterranean region. Our work is based on the optimal physiological niche for regeneration of each species through in-depth research on the effect of drought, temperature and light environment. For this purpose, we developed a model to predict the carbon assimilation rate which allows us to identify the optimal environmental conditions where regeneration from each species could establish itself more easily. To obtain a better understanding about the effect of low temperature on regeneration, we studied the acclimation and deacclimation patterns to cold of each species, identifying period of frost sensitivity, as well as bottlenecks where competition between species can arise. Finally, to support our results about the effect of water availabilty, we conducted a greenhouse experiment with a view of studying the drought effect at the whole plant level. Here, two watering regimes were applied in order to study the physiological and morphological traits of each species, mainly at the level of the root system and stem growth, and so relate them to the different water use strategies of the species. Despite the fact that stone pine has been the target species for centuries, nowadays this species is in the most unfavorable position to cope with climate change. Holm oak, however, resulted the species that is best adapted to tolerate the predicted changes, followed closely by prickly juniper. Our results suggest a feasible expansion of the distribution range in holm oak, an increase in the prickly juniper presence and a progressive decreasing of stone pine presence in the medium term in these stone pine-holm oak-prickly juniper mixed forests.

Rehabilitating degraded forest land in central Vietnam with mixed native species plantings

This paper examines the use of Acacia as a nurse crop to overcome some of the ecological and economic impediments to reforestation of degraded areas dominated by grasses including Imperata cylindrica. The study site at Hai Van Pass in central Vietnam was initially reforested using Acacia auriculiformis. After 8 years these stands were thinned and under-planted with Hopea odorata, Dipterocarpus alatus, Parashorea chinensis, Tarrietia javanica, Parashorea stellata, Scaphium lychnophorum, Peltophorum dasyrhachis var. tonkinensis and other high-value native species. At the time of field assessment (early 2004), the Acacia trees were aged between 16 and 18 years and basal area ranged from 9 to 13 m(2) ha(-1) after several thinnings. Acacias facilitated the establishment of native species, but after 6-7 years of growth, further thinning is needed to maintain growth rates. In addition to assisting the establishment of native species, the Acacia nurse crop should provide a revenue stream (NPV about US$ 180, or IRR 19%) sufficient to cover the establishment costs of the underplanted native species (about US$ 100). (c) 2006 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Biological nitrogen fixation and nutrient release from litter of the guachapele leguminous tree under pure and mixed plantation with eucalyptus.

A Pseudosamanea guachapele (guachapele), leguminosa arbórea fixadora de nitrogênio, é uma alternativa para plantios florestais mistos nos trópicos. Como são escassas as informações sobre a espécie em plantios mistos de eucalipto em condições edafoclimáticas brasileiras, foi conduzido um experimento no qual objetivou-se avaliar a contribuição da fixação biológica de nitrogênio para a guachapele e a velocidade de decomposição e de liberação de nutrientes de folhas senescentes de eucalipto e guachapele (oriundas dos plantios puros e consorciado). A porcentagem de N derivado da atmosfera (% Ndfa) foi estimada comparando-se a abundância natural de 15N ( 15N, ) nos tecidos da guachapele com a observada nos tecidos do Eucalyptus grandis, espécie não fixadora, ambas com sete anos de idade. A constante de decomposição (k) e a meia-vida (t1/2) de serapilheira foram estimadas utilizando-se o modelo exponencial aplicado aos dados oriundos de coletas de litterbags. A estimativa da %Ndfa para guachapele, em condições de plantio puro, variou de 17 a 36%, enquanto que, em condições de plantio consorciado, foi de 35 a 60 %. A concentração de N nas folhas senescentes estava positivamente relacionada com a taxa de decomposição, sendo essa decrescente da guachapele para o eucalipto. A t1/2 dos resíduos diferiu significativamente (p < 0.05), sendo de 148, 185 e 218 dias para as folhas de guachapele, mistura das duas espécies e eucalipto, respectivamente. A liberação dos nutrientes (principalmente N, K e Mg) das folhas seguiu a mesma ordem da t1/2 devido à qualidade inicial das mesmas. Os resultados indicam que a guachapele pode beneficiar o plantio misto pela adição de N e por meio da intensificação da decomposição da serapilheira.

Behavior Of Listeria Monocytogenes In A Multi-species Biofilm With Enterococcus Faecalis And Enterococcus Faecium And Control Through Sanitation Procedures.

The formation of mono-species biofilm (Listeria monocytogenes) and multi-species biofilms (Enterococcus faecium, Enterococcus faecalis, and L. monocytogenes) was evaluated. In addition, the effectiveness of sanitation procedures for the control of the multi-species biofilm also was evaluated. The biofilms were grown on stainless steel coupons at various incubation temperatures (7, 25 and 39°C) and contact times (0, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8days). In all tests, at 7°C, the microbial counts were below 0.4 log CFU/cm(2) and not characteristic of biofilms. In mono-species biofilm, the counts of L. monocytogenes after 8days of contact were 4.1 and 2.8 log CFU/cm(2) at 25 and 39°C, respectively. In the multi-species biofilms, Enterococcus spp. were present at counts of 8 log CFU/cm(2) at 25 and 39°C after 8days of contact. However, the L. monocytogenes in multi-species biofilms was significantly affected by the presence of Enterococcus spp. and by temperature. At 25°C, the growth of L. monocytogenes biofilms was favored in multi-species cultures, with counts above 6 log CFU/cm(2) after 8days of contact. In contrast, at 39°C, a negative effect was observed for L. monocytogenes biofilm growth in mixed cultures, with a significant reduction in counts over time and values below 0.4 log CFU/cm(2) starting at day 4. Anionic tensioactive cleaning complemented with another procedure (acid cleaning, disinfection or acid cleaning+disinfection) eliminated the multi-species biofilms under all conditions tested (counts of all micro-organisms<0.4 log CFU/cm(2)). Peracetic acid was the most effective disinfectant, eliminating the multi-species biofilms under all tested conditions (counts of the all microorganisms <0.4 log CFU/cm(2)). In contrast, biguanide was the least effective disinfectant, failing to eliminate biofilms under all the test conditions.

Insect feeding preferences on Piperaceae species observed in São Paulo city, Brazil

Piperaceae species have been placed among the basal angiosperm and are adapted to a variety of habitats including moist forests, secondary vegetation and dry high lands. The major anatomical/morphology features are of small trees, vines, and shrubs for Piper species, while the epiphytic and succulent characteristics are predominant forms among Peperomia species. Their secondary chemistry can be mostly represented by amides, phenylpropanoids/lignoids, and chromenes in addition to a phletoria of biosynthetically mixed-origin secondary compounds. Although several amides and lignans are known as insecticides, several phytophagous insects, among which some considered pests of economic importance, have been observed feeding vigorously on Piperaceae species. Herein we describe the feeding preferences of fourteen phytophagous species of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hemiptera over approximately fifty Piperaceae species observed in São Paulo, SP, Brazil, in a long-term basis.

A comparison of the leaf-litter ant fauna in a secondary atlantic forest with an adjacent pine plantation in southeastern Brazil

We investigated the influence of Pinus afforestation on the structure of leaf-litter ant communities in the southeastern Brazilian Atlantic Forest, studying an old secondary forest and a nearly 30 year-old never managed Pinus elliottii reforested area. A total of 12,826 individual ants distributed among 95 species and 32 genera were obtained from 50 1 m² samples/ habitat. Of these, 60 species were recorded in the pine plantation and 82 in the area of Atlantic forest; almost 50% of the species found in the secondary forest area were also present in the pine plantation. The number of species per sample was significantly higher in the secondary forest than in the pine plantation. Forest-adapted taxa are the most responsible for ant species richness differences between areas, and the pine plantation is richer in species classified as soil or litter omnivorous-dominants. The specialized ant predators registered in the pine plantation, as seven Dacetini, two Basiceros, two Attini and two Discothyrea, belong to widely distributed species. The NMDS (non-metric multidimensional scaling) ordination also suggested strong differences in similarity among samples of the two areas. Furthermore, this analysis indicated higher sample heterogeneity in the secondary forest, with two clusters of species, while in the pine plantation the species belong to a single cluster. We applied the ant mosaic hypothesis to explain the distribution of the leaf-litter fauna and spatial autocorrelation tests among samples. We argue that the results are likely related to differences in quality and distribution of the leaf-litter between the pine plantation and the secondary area.

Rediscovery of the putatively extinct ant species Simopelta minima (Brandão) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae), with a discussion on rarity and conservation status of ant species

Simopelta minima (Brandão, 1989) was originally described based on four workers collected in soil samples from a small cocoa plantation in Ilhéus, state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil. In the subsequent years after the description, this cocoa plantation was eliminated and the species was then considered extinct by the Brazilian environmental institutions. The recent rediscovery of S. minima workers in subterranean pitfall trap samples from Viçosa, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, over 1.000 km distant from type locality, suggests that the rarity and vulnerability status of some ant species may be explained by insufficient sampling of adequate microhabitats, in time and space.