Mycoflora and mycotoxins in field samples of Brazil nuts

Fungal and mycotoxin contamination was investigated in field samples of nuts, shells and pods of the Brazil nut collected during different periods in Itacoatiara, State of Amazonas, Brazil: day 0, samples still on the tree: days 5, 10 and 15, samples in contact with soil for 5, 10 and 15 days, respectively. The most prevalent fungi were Aspergillus flavus in fruit pods and nuts and Fusarium spp. in shells. Penicillium spp. and A. flavus were isolated from soil, and Fusarium spp. and Penicillium spp. from air. Aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid were not detected in any of the samples analyzed. The high frequency of isolation of aflatoxigenic A. flavus strains from soil and Brazil nuts increases the chance of aflatoxin production in these substrates. These findings suggest a possible contamination before drying and indicate soil as the main source of fungal contamination of Brazil nuts. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Strain-specific polyketide synthase genes of Aspergillus niger

In silico comparison of 34 putative pks genes in Aspergillus niger strain CBS 513.88 versus A. niger strain ATCC 1015 genome revealed significant nucleotide identity (>95% covering a minimum of 99% of the gene sequence) for 31 of these genes (approximately 91%). A. niger CBS 513.88 harbors three putative pks genes (An01g01130, An11g05940, and An15g07920), for which nucleotide identity was not found in A. niger ATCC 1015. To compare the results of the in silico analysis with the in vivo situation, experimental data were obtained for a large number of A. niger strains obtained from different substrates and geographical regions. Three putative Os genes that were found to be variable between the two A. niger strains using bioinformatics tools were in fact strain-specific genes based on experimental data. The PCR amplification signals for the An01g01130, An11g05940, and An15g07920 pks genes were detected in only 97%, 71%, and 26% of the strains, respectively. Southern blot analyses confirmed the PCR data. Because one of the strain-specific pits genes (An15g07920) is located in a putative ochratoxin cluster, we focused our investigation on that region. We assessed the ochratoxin production capability of the 119 A. niger strains and found a positive association between the presence of this pia gene and the capability of the respective strain to produce ochratoxin. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Characterization of aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic strains of Aspergillus section Flavi isolated from corn grains of different geographic origins in Brazil

Aflatoxins can cause great economic losses and serious risks to humans and animals health. The largest aflatoxin producers belong to Aspergillus section Flavi and can occur naturally in food commodities. Studies showed that molecular tools as well as the type of sclerotia produced by the strains could be helpful for identification of Aspergillus species and could be correlated with levels of toxin production. The purpose of this work was to characterize the genetic diversity using AFLP technique, the type of sclerotia and the ability of aflatoxin production by isolated strains from corn of different origins in Brazil, and to verify whether qPCR based on aflR and aflP genes is appropriate for estimating the level of aflatoxin production. All the 75 strains were classified as A. flavus and the AFLP technique showed a wide intraspecific variability within them. Regarding sclerotia production, 34% were classified as S and 66% as L type. Among the aflatoxin-producers, 52.8% produced aflatoxin B-1, while 47.2% aflatoxins B-1 and B-2. Statistical analysis showed no correlation between sclerotia production and aflatoxigenicty, and no correlation between the phylogenetic clusters and aflatoxin production. Concerning the relative expression of aflR and aflP, Pearson's correlation test demonstrated low positive correlation between the expression of the aflR and aflP genes and the production of AFB(1) and AFB(2), but showed high positive correlation between aflR and aflP expression. In contrast to the other reference strains, A. oryzae ATCC 7282 showed no amplification of aflR and aflP. The results highlight the need for detection of reliable and reproducible markers with a high positive correlation with aflatoxin production.

Biomonitoring of Microcystin and Aflatoxin Co-Occurrence in Aquaculture Using Immunohistochemistry and Genotoxicity Assays

This work investigated the effects of co-occurring aflatoxin B-1 (AFB(1)) and microcystin (MC) in aquaculture, using immunohistochemistry and genotoxicity methods. Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were exposed to AFB(1) by intraperitoneal and MC (cell extract of Microcystis aeruginosa) by intraperitoneal and immersion routes. The interaction of MC-AFB(1) was evaluated co-exposing the intraperitoneal doses. Blood samples were collected after 8, 24, and 48h to analyze the micronucleus frequency and comet score. The interaction of MC-AFB(1) showed a synergic mutagenic response by higher micronucleus frequency of co-exposed group. A slight genotoxic synergism was also observed in the comet score. Immunohistochemistry detected MC in al lthe fish liver tissues exposed to MC by intraperitoneal route, and only the immersed group with the highest dose of MC showed a positive response. Although MC was non-detectable in the edible muscle, the combination of immunohistochemistry with genotoxicity assay was an attractive biomonitoring tool in aquaculture, where the animals were frequently exposed to co-occurring synergic hazards.

Mycobiota and mycotoxins in Brazil nut samples from different states of the Brazilian Amazon region

The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of fungi and mycotoxins (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid) in Brazil nut samples collected in different states of the Brazilian Amazon region: Acre, Amazonas, Amapa, and Para. A total of 200 husk samples and 200 almond samples were inoculated onto Aspergillus flavus-parasiticus agar for the detection of fungi. Mycotoxins were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The mycobiota comprised the following fungi, in decreasing order of frequency: almonds - Phialemonium spp. (54%), Penicillium spp. (16%), Fusarium spp. (13%), Phaeoacremonium spp. (11%), and Aspergillus spp. (4%), husks - Phialemonium spp. (62%), Phaeoacremonium spp. (11%), Penicillium spp. (10%), Fusarium spp. (9%), and Aspergillus spp. A polyphasic approach was used for identification of Aspergillus species. Aflatoxins were detected in 22 (11%) of the 200 almond samples, with 21 samples presenting aflatoxin B-1 levels above 8 mu g/kg, the limit established by the European Commission for Brazil nuts for further processing. Nineteen (9.5%) of the 200 husk samples contained aflatoxins, but at levels lower than those seen in almonds. Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) was detected in 44 (22%) almond samples, with levels ranging from 98.65 to 1612 mu g/kg. Aspergillus nomius and A. flavus were the most frequent Aspergillus species. The presence of fungi does not necessarily imply mycotoxin contamination, but almonds of the Brazil nut seem to be a good substrate for fungal growth. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Molecular phylogeny and phenotypic variability of clinical and environmental strains of Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus is the second most common cause of aspergillosis infection in immunocompromised patients and is responsible for the production of aflatoxins. Little is known about the population structure of A. flavus, although recent molecular and phenotypic data seem to demonstrate that different genetic lineages exist within this species. The aim of this study was to carry out a morphological, physiological, and molecular analysis of a set of clinical and environmental isolates to determine whether this variability is due to species divergence or intraspecific diversity, and to assess whether the clinical isolates form a separate group. The amdS and omtA genes were more phylogenetically informative than the other tested genes and their combined analysis inferred three main clades, with no clear distinction between clinical and environmental isolates. No important morphological and physiological differences were found between the members of the different clades, with the exception of the assimilation of D-glucosamine, which differentiates the members of the clade II from the others. (C) 2012 The British Mycological Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Biomonitoring of microcystin and aflatoxin co-occurrence in aquaculture using immunohistochemistry and genotoxicity assays

This work investigated the effects of co-occurring aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and microcystin (MC) in aquaculture, using immunohistochemistry and genotoxicity methods. Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were exposed to AFB1 by intraperitoneal and MC (cell extract of Microcystis aeruginosa) by intraperitoneal and immersion routes. The interaction of MC-AFB1 was evaluated co-exposing the intraperitoneal doses. Blood samples were collected after 8, 24, and 48h to analyze the micronucleus frequency and comet score. The interaction of MC-AFB1 showed a synergic mutagenic response by higher micronucleus frequency of co-exposed group. A slight genotoxic synergism was also observed in the comet score. Immunohistochemistry detected MC in al lthe fish liver tissues exposed to MC by intraperitoneal route, and only the immersed group with the highest dose of MC showed a positive response. Although MC was non-detectable in the edible muscle, the combination of immunohistochemistry with genotoxicity assay was an attractive biomonitoring tool in aquaculture, where the animals were frequently exposed to co-occurring synergic hazards.

Monitoring and determination of fungi and mycotoxins in stored Brazil nuts

Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) is an important commodity from the Brazilian Amazon, and approximately 37,000 tons (3.36 × 10⁷ kg) of Brazil nuts are harvested each year. However, substantial nut contamination by Aspergillus section Flavi occurs, with subsequent production of mycotoxins. In this context, the objective of the present investigation was to evaluate the presence of fungi and mycotoxins (aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid) in 110 stored samples of cultivated Brazil nut (55 samples of nuts and 55 samples of shells) collected monthly for 11 months in Itacoatiara, State of Amazonas, Brazil. The samples were inoculated in duplicate onto Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus agar and potato dextrose agar for the detection of fungi, and the presence of mycotoxins was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The most prevalent fungi in nuts and shells were Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., and Penicillium spp. A polyphasic approach was used for identification of Aspergillus species. Aflatoxins and cyclopiazonic acid were not detected in any of the samples analyzed. The low water activity of the substrate was a determinant factor for the presence of fungi and the absence of aflatoxin in Brazil nut samples. The high frequency of isolation of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus section Flavi strains, mainly A. flavus, and their persistence during storage increase the chances of aflatoxin production on these substrates and indicates the need for good management practices to prevent mycotoxin contamination in Brazil nuts.

Enzimi, acidi organici ed altri metaboliti coinvolti nella patogenesi di Penicillium spp

Blue mould caused by Penicillium expansum Link is one of the most destructive rot of pome fruit in all growing areas (Snowdon, 1990; Jones and Aldwinckle, 1991; Tonini,1996) In the past, Penicillium rot has been controlled by fungicide postharvest treatment mainly by thiabendazole (TBZ) and benomyl (Hardenburg and Spalding, 1972), but their intense use produced the appearance of resistant strains with a great reduction of their activity The aims of the present study were to characterize the isolates of Pencillium sp causing blue mold on pear in Italy by physiological and biochemical parameters. In particular differencing also the behavior of isolates to relationship with sensitivity or resistance to TBZ treatments. We have examined the early stage of infection in relation to enzyme activity, local modulation of pH, production of organic acids, and to secondary metabolism of pathogen. The results described here confirm that the majority of P. expansum isolates from pears packing houses are resistant to TBZ, Among the TBZ-resistant isolates scored in this work, different isolates (RR) showed higher percentage of conidial germination on TBZ-amended medium compared to non amended medium. This may indicate a stimulatory effect of TBZ on conidial germination. Therefore TBZ treatments are not only ineffective for controlling P. expansum, but they may also increase the severity of blue mould on fruits. In the absence of fungicide, isolates showed a significant difference for infection severity, R and RR isolates are characterized by higher pathogenic fitness on fruits, producing larger lesions than S isolates. These data are supported by the study with laboratory-induced resistant isolates, which shows the lack of correlation between TBZ resistance and osmotic sensitivity, and highlights the association between TBZ resistance and infection severity (Baraldi et al 2003). Enzymatic screening gave a positive reaction to esterase, urease, pectinase activity, in addition, the pathogen is able to synthesize a complex enzyme act to degrade the main components of the cell wall especially pectin and cellulose. Isolated sensitive and resistant are characterized by a good activity of pectinase, especially from poligactoronase, which, as already reported by several studies (D'hallewin et al, 2004; Prusky et al, 2004), are the basis of degradative process of cell wall. Also, although the measure was minor also highlighted some activities of cellulase, but even note in the production of this kind of cellulase and hemicellulase P. Expansum were not targeted, studies have found no other source of information in this regard. Twenty isolates of Penicillium expansum, were tested in vitro ad in vivo for acid production ability and pH drop. We have found that modulation of pH and the organic acids extrusion were influence to various parameter:  Initial pH: in general, the greatest reduction of pH was observed in isolates grown at pH 7, except for four isolates that maintained the pH of the medium close to 7, the others significantly decreased the pH, ranging from 5.5 to 4.1.. In extreme acid condition (pH 3,0) growth and modulation of pH is most lower respect optimal condition (pH 5,0). Also isolates R and RR have showed a greater adaptation to environmental condition more than isolates S.  Time: although the acidification continues for some days, PH modulation is strongest in early hours (48-72 hours)of inoculation process. Time also affects the quality of organic acids, for example in vitro results showed an initial abundant production of succinc acid, followed to important production of galacturoinc acid.  Substrates: there are many differences for the type of acids produced in vitro and in vivo. Results showed in vivo an abundant production of galacturonic, malic, and citric acids and some unknown organic acids in smaller concentrations. Secondary metabolite analysis revealed intra-specific differences, and patulin was found in all isolates, but most significant reduction was observed between in vitro and in vivo samples. There was no correlation between the concentration of patulin, and the percentage of infected fruits, but sample with a lower infection severity of rotten area than the others, showed a significantly lower mycotoxin concentration than samples with a higher lesion diameter of rotten area. Beyond of patulin was detected the presence of another secondary metabolite, penitrem A.

Mechanismen der Aktivierung und Detoxifizierung von Aflatoxin B 1 in verschiedenen Leberzelltypen von Ratten, Mäusen und Waldmurmeltieren

Zusammenfassung: Die Applikation des Mykotoxins Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) führt in der Ratte zu Lebertumoren hepatozellulären Ursprungs, während bisher keine transformierende Wirkung dieses Mykotoxins auf Kupffer- und Endothelzellen (Nichtparenchymzellen, NPC) nachgewiesen werden konnte. Diese Resistenzmechanismen der NPC gegenüber AFB1 wurden im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit untersucht. AFB1 ist per se inaktiv, wird jedoch durch Verstoffwechselung in den chemisch reaktiven, an DNA bindenden Metaboliten AFB1-8,9-Epoxid überführt. Daneben stellt die enzymatische Hydroxylierung von AFB1 am Kohlenstoff-9a zum Aflatoxin M1 eine Detoxifizierung dar. Durch HPLC-Analyse der AFB1-Metabolite konnte gezeigt werden, daß in Nichtparenchymzellen (NPC) das Verhältnis von 9a-Hydroxylierung zu 8,9-Epoxidierung höher als in Parenchymzellen (PC) ist. Die AFB1-9a-hydroxylase fördert insbesondere in den NPC der Leber die Bildung des weniger gentoxischen Metaboliten AFM1 und konkurriert daher um die Aktivierung von AFB1 zum mutagenen und kanzerogenen 8,9-Epoxid. Dieser metabolische Unterschied scheint also einen Beitrag zur Resistenz der NPC der Leber gegenüber der hepatokanzerogenen Wirkung von AFB1 zu leisten. Da ein Synergismus zwischen der AFB1-Exposition und einer Infektion mit dem Hepatitis B-Virus (HBV) beim Menschen bezüglich des Auftretens von hepatozellulären Karzinomen zu bestehen scheint, wurde im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit untersucht, ob die metabolische Aktivierung von AFB1 durch eine HBV-Infektion verstärkt wird. In einem Vergleich der Biotransformation von AFB1 mit mikrosomalen Leberfraktionen von transgenen HBV-Mäusen und Kontrollmäusen wurde keine signifikanten Unterschiede festgestellt. Dagegen wurde bei Virus-infizierten Waldmurmeltieren eine deutlich reduzierte Bildung des AFB1-8,9-Epoxids beobachtet. Es konnte z.T. ein Zusammenhang zwischen den verschiedenen Stadien der Leberschädigung und den Metabolismusraten festgestellt werden, wobei die metabolische Aktivierung mit zunehmender Leberschädigung abzunehmen scheint. Auch hinsichtlich der Aktivitäten verschiedener Cytochrom P450 abhängiger Monooxygenasen wurde eine weitgehende Übereinstimmung mit den durch HPLC ermittelten Metabolitenprofilen des AFB1 beobachtet. Diese Studien mit subzellulären Leberfraktion der transgenen HBV-Mäusen und der Waldmurmeltieren zeigen, daß die Interaktion zwischen Hepatitis und AFB1 nicht mit der verstärkten metabolischer Aktivierung von AFB1 zu erklären ist. TGF-ß1, aus der Gruppe der Cytokine, wird als Mediator bei Entzündungsprozessen in der Leber so z.B. im Verlauf einer Virushepatitis freigesetzt. Aufgrund der besonderen Bedeutung des murinen CYP2A5 (ortholog zum humanen CYP2A6) bei der Aktivierung von AFB1 wurde der Einfluß von TGF-ß1 auf CYP2A5 in Primärkulturen von Maushepatozyten untersucht. Durch Messung der Aktivität der Cumarin-7-hydroxylase sowie durch Bestimmung der Proteinmenge von CYP2A5 mittels Western Blotting konnte zunächst die Induzierbarkeit des CYP2A5-Isoenzyms durch Phenobarbital in kultivierten Hepatozyten der Maus gezeigt werden. Nur bei einer niedrigen TGF-ß1-Konzentration wurde eine leicht erhöhte Expression von CYP2A5 festgestellt, ansonsten führte die Behandlung der kultivierten Maushepatozyten mit TGF-ß1 zu einer dosisabhängigen Verminderung der Expression von CYP2A5.

Association of maternal sphinganine:sphingosine ratio and folate levels with neural tube defects along the South Texas border

Neural tube defects (NTDs) remain elevated in Hispanic women along the South Texas Border, despite folate supplementation and folate fortification of cereal products. Missmer et al. examined the relationships between fumonisins, a class of corn mycotoxin, and NTDs in Hispanic women who ate corn tortillas and found increased odds ratios with increasing exposure, as measured by serum sphinganine:sphingosine (sa:so) ratios. This study examined the interactions between categorized maternal serum folate levels and stratified sa:so ratios and the resultant odds ratios of NTDs, stratified by type (anencephaly and spina bifida). The hypothesis was that the above normal folate category would have lower odds ratios of NTDs at given sa:so ratio categories and that there would be a difference in odds ratio patterns for anencephaly and spina bifida. Methods. Data for 406 Hispanic women were obtained from the Missmer case-control study. Sa:so ratios were calculated and subjects were stratified into “below normal,” “normal,” and above normal range for folate. A logistic regression model was applied, controlling for BMI, serum B12, lab batch, and conception date. Results. While OR’s of NTDs increased for increasing sa:so ratios, OR’s for “above normal” folate were not decreased at any sa:so ratio and there was no statistically significant difference between OR’s of anencephaly and spina bifida. Conclusion. Folate does not appear to be protective against the potential teratogenic effect of fumonisins and did not differ in effect on OR’s of NTD by type. More research is necessary to determine the extent of fumonisin exposure in Hispanic women along the South Texas Border.^

Fumonisins and Alternaria alternata lycopersici toxins: sphinganine analog mycotoxins induce apoptosis in monkey kidney cells.

Fusarium moniliforme toxins (fumonisins) and Alternaria alternata lycopersici (AAL) toxins are members of a new class of sphinganine analog mycotoxins that occur widely in the food chain. These mycotoxins represent a serious threat to human and animal health, inducing both cell death and neoplastic events in mammals. The mechanisms by which this family of chemical congeners induce changes in cell homeostasis were investigated in African green monkey kidney cells (CV-1) by assessing the appearance of apoptosis, cell cycle regulation, and putative components of signal transduction pathways involved in apoptosis. Structurally, these mycotoxins resemble the sphingoid bases, sphingosine and sphinganine, that are reported to play critical roles in cell communication and signal transduction. The addition of fumonisin B1 or AAL toxin, TA, to CV-1 cells induced the stereotypical hallmarks of apoptosis, including the formation of DNA ladders, compaction of nuclear DNA, and the subsequent appearance of apoptotic bodies. Neither mycotoxin induced cell death, DNA ladders, or apoptotic bodies in CV-1 cells expressing simian virus 40 large T antigen (COS-7) at toxin concentrations that readily killed CV-1 cells. Fumonisin B1 induced cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase in CV-1 cells but not in COS-7 cells. AAL toxin TA did not arrest cell cycle progression in either cell line. The induction of apoptosis combined with the widespread presence of these compounds in food crops and animal feed identifies a previously unrecognized health risk to humans and livestock. These molecules also represent a new class of natural toxicants that can be used as model compounds to further characterize the molecular and biochemical pathways leading to apoptosis.

Determinação de biomarcadores de aflatoxina B1 e aplicabilidade na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte

As aflatoxinas são metabólitos secundários produzidos por fungos toxigênicos das espécies Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus e A. nomius. São amplamente encontradas em matérias-primas de rações animais, em especial o milho, e têm a capacidade de levar a quadros clínicos agudos ou crônicos de aflatoxicose, caracterizados por, desde a morte por hepatite aguda até a diminuição do desempenho zootécnico por diminuição de peso ou consumo de ração. A aflatoxina B1 tem sido considerada o metabólito mais perigoso, uma vez que possui alto poder hepatotóxico, além de ser mutagênica e carcinogênica. Atualmente a ciência trabalha rumo à descoberta de substâncias que sejam indicadoras confiáveis de contaminação por componentes tóxicos em homens e em animais, os chamados biomarcadores, que medem uma mudança celular, biológica ou molecular em um meio biológico (tecidos humanos, células ou fluídos) que fornecem informação a respeito de uma doença ou exposição a uma determinada substância. Sua detecção pode auxiliar na identificação, no diagnóstico e no tratamento de indivíduos afetados que podem estar sob risco, mas ainda não exibem os sintomas. Sendo assim, com o auxílio de análises que confirmem a patogenicidade da aflatoxina B1 (determinação da atividade de enzimas hepáticas, da avaliação da função renal, de hematologia, da dosagem de minerais séricos e da avaliação de desempenho zootécnico), o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a aplicabilidade da determinação de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxinas e do aduto sérico AFB1-lisina na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte. Utilizou-se 240 pintos de 1 dia, machos, de linhagem Cobb 500®, distribuídos aleatoriamente em 4 dietas experimentais: Controle Negativo: Ração Basal (RB); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente ((aluminosilicato de cálcio e sódio hidratado/HSCAS); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração e; RB + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração.Os resultados experimentais mostram que o efeito deletério da AFB1, na concentração utilizada, é mais pronunciado que os efeitos protetores do HSCAS sobre os parâmetros de saúde dos animais. Não houve ação efetiva do adsorvente utilizado sobre quase nenhuma variável estudada, apenas para a redução das lesões histopatológicas em fígado, na redução da concentração de gama-glutamiltransferase (GGT), fósforo e aumento da contagem de hemáceas aos 21 dias de idade. Porém, influenciou positivamente a redução de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxina G1 aos 21 dias e as concentrações de AFB1-lisina sérica aos 21 e aos 42 dias de idade. Estes dados são importantes porque permite concluir que, embora sintomatologicamente o HSCAS não tenha exercido função efetiva, molecularmente foi capaz de mostrar de eficácia sobre os alguns biomarcadores de aflatoxinas no organismo das aves

Evoluzione di micotossine regolate ed emergenti attraverso i processi alimentari: dal campo alla digestione

Nel presente lavoro di tesi sono stati studiati diversi aspetti riguardanti micotossine regolate ed emergenti al fine di fornire informazioni circa la loro mitigazione dal campo al prodotto finito, focalizzando l’attenzione sul potenziale impatto del processo tecnologico. Successivamente, il loro ruolo tossicologico, ancora in discussione, è stato indagato attraverso l’applicazione di modelli gastrointestinali. In particolare, lo studio è stato rivolto a DON, micotossina più comune nel grano, DON-3-Glc, che rappresenta la sua principale forma modificata, e alla micotossina ENN B, maggiore rappresentante tra il gruppo delle cosiddette micotossine “emergenti”. Questo studio è stato quindi suddiviso in tre sezioni. La prima è stata rivolta allo sviluppo di esperimenti in serra effettuati su diversi genotipi di grano duro al fine di comprendere meglio il meccanismo di detossificazione dal DON e la resistenza delle diverse varietà ad una delle malattie più gravi che colpiscono questa specie (fusariosi della spiga). La seconda sezione ha riguardato lo studio del reale impatto di alcune filiere di produzione strategiche sul contenuto finale in micotossine. Inoltre, una strategia di mitigazione è stata messa a punto tenendo conto del possibile sviluppo di altri contaminanti legati al processo stesso e ottenendo un prodotto finito adeguato per il consumatore. Nell'ultima sezione di questo lavoro sono invece state effettuate delle indagini circa i possibili risvolti tossicologici di questi composti, valutando il loro destino durante la digestione umana.

Assessment of toxigenic fungi in poultry feed

Introduction - Feed supplies the necessary nutrients for the growth of healthy animals, which are a part of the human diet. The presence of toxigenic fungi in animal feed such as Aspergillus spp. may contribute to 1) the loss of nutritional value of feedstuff, since fungi will assimilate the most readily available nutrients present in the feed, and 2) the development of mycotoxicoses and chronic conditions, which can raise economic issues due to animal disease and contamination of animal derived products. Aim of the study - The goal of this work was to evaluate the incidence of Aspergilli, particularly from the Circumdati, Flavi and Fumigati sections, through real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) in 11 feed samples.