Avaliação da intervenção na deficiência de ferro com fortificação de ferro aminoquelato: estudo em crianças de creches do município de Lins-SP

Pós-graduação em Pediatria - FMB

Inflamação, homeostase do ferro e suplementação nutricional na cirurgia de derivação gástrica em Y de Roux em mulheres obesas

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Diagnóstico diferencial das anemias microcíticas e hipocrômicas

The microcytic and hypochromic anemia are the results of several pathologic conditions. They are the most prevalent forms of anemia in the Brazilian population , and frequently the clinical diagnosis depends on the laboratorial analysis. In many cases it is necessary to use specific techniques to determine if this anemia is due to iron deficiency or different types of thalassemia. This article shows the main technical applications used for differential diagnosis of microcytic and hypochromic anemia.

Beta talassemia menor: aspectos clínicos e laboratoriais

As alterações que afetam as hemoglobinas estão relacionadas à síntese estrutural ou quantitativa dos aminoácidos que compõem as diferentes cadeias globínicas (α/β). Existem inúmeras causas que podem resultar nessas alterações, dentre elas as mutações. A talassemia é um dos distúrbios genéticos mais frequentes do homem e mais difundidos no mundo. Fatos históricos, como imigração e colonização populacionais de diferentes partes do mundo, contribuíram para a difusão da patologia em outras localidades, incluindo o Brasil. A forma de manifestação clínica e laboratorial da talassemia do tipo beta menor (BTT), foi objeto de estudo nesta revisão bibliográfica, pois embora seja uma patologia que não mostra claramente manifestações sintomáticas, seus aspectos clínicos e laboratoriais são muito relevantes. A importância do diagnóstico laboratorial das anemias microcíticas e hipocrômicas presentes, tanto em indivíduos portadores de deficiência de ferro como em beta talassêmicos menor, é um ponto chave quando nos referimos a esses parâmetros, pois os índices HCM e VCM apresentam-se com valores extremamente reduzidos (<24 pg e <70 fL) e a quantidade de glóbulos vermelhos muito aumentados (> 5,0 milhões/μL), na beta talassemia menor em comparação à deficiência de ferro. Portanto os valores contidos no hemograma bem como a presença da inclusão citoplasmática ponteado basófilo e morfologia das hemácias observadas em análise de extensões sanguíneas coradas, é de grande valia na suspeita da beta talassemia menor, tornando-se ponto importante na sugestão da realização de eletroforese de hemoglobina para confirmação do diagnóstico da beta talassemia menor, devido ao aumento quantitativo da Hb A2.

Red blood cell lifespan, erythropoiesis and hemoglobin control

Erythropoietin (EPO) and iron deficiency as causes of anemia in patients with limited renal function or end-stage renal disease are well addressed. The concomitant impairment of red blood cell (RBC) survival has been largely neglected. Properties of the uremic environment like inflammation, increased oxidative stress and uremic toxins seem to be responsible for the premature changes in RBC membrane and cytoskeleton. The exposure of antigenic sites and breakdown of the phosphatidylserine asymmetry promote RBC phagocytosis. While the individual response to treatment with EPO-stimulating agents (ESA) depends on both the RBC's lifespan and the production rate, uniform dosing algorithms do not meet that demand. The clinical use of mathematical models predicting ESA-induced changes in hematocrit might be greatly improved once independent estimates of RBC production rate and/or lifespan become available, thus making the concomitant estimation of both parameters unnecessary. Since heme breakdown by the hemoxygenase pathway results in carbon monoxide (CO) which is exhaled, a simple CO breath test has been used to calculate hemoglobin turnover and therefore RBC survival and lifespan. Future research will have to be done to validate and implement this method in patients with kidney failure. This will result in new insights into RBC kinetics in renal patients. Eventually, these findings are expected to improve our understanding of the hemoglobin variability in response to ESA.

A shift from oral to intravenous iron supplementation therapy is observed over time in a large swiss cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND In 2007, leading international experts in the field of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) recommended intravenous (IV) iron supplements over oral (PO) ones because of superior effectiveness and better tolerance. We aimed to determine the percentage of patients with IBD undergoing iron therapy and to assess the dynamics of iron prescription habits (IV versus PO). METHODS We analyzed anonymized data on patients with Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis extracted from the Helsana database. Helsana is a Swiss health insurance company providing coverage for 18% of the Swiss population (1.2 million individuals). RESULTS In total, 629 patients with Crohn's disease (61% female) and 398 patients with ulcerative colitis (57% female) were identified; mean observation time was 31.8 months for Crohn's disease and 31.0 months for ulcerative colitis patients. Of all patients with IBD, 27.1% were prescribed iron (21.1% in males; 31.1% in females). Patients treated with steroids, immunomodulators, and/or anti-tumor necrosis factor drugs were more frequently treated with iron supplements when compared with those not treated with any medications (35.0% versus 20.9%, odds ratio, 1.94; P < 0.001). The frequency of IV iron prescriptions increased significantly from 2006 to 2009 for both genders (males: from 2.6% to 10.1%, odds ratio = 3.84, P < 0.001; females: from 5.3% to 12.1%, odds ratio = 2.26, P = 0.002), whereas the percentage of PO iron prescriptions did not change. CONCLUSIONS Twenty-seven percent of patients with IBD were treated with iron supplements. Iron supplements administered IV were prescribed more frequently over time. These prescription habits are consistent with the implementation of guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in IBD.

THE EFFECTS OF STREPTOZOTOCIN DIABETES AND DIETARY IRON INTAKE ON CATALASE, GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE, SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE AND LIPID PEROXIDATION IN CARDIAC AND SKELETAL MUSCLES OF RATS

Catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) prevent oxygen free radical mediated tissue damage. Diabetes increases and a low dietary intake of iron decreases catalase activity in muscle. Therefore, the combined effects of diabetes and iron deficiency on the free radical scavenging enzyme system and lipid peroxidation were studied. Male, weanling rats were injected with streptozotocin (65 mg/kg, IV) and fed diets containing either 35 ppm iron (Db + Fe) or 8 ppm iron (Db $-$ Fe). Sham injected animals served as iron adequate (C + Fe) or iron deficient (C $-$ Fe) controls. Heart, gastrocnemius (GT), soleus and tibialis anterior (TA) muscles were dissected, weighted and analyzed for catalase, GSH-Px and SOD activities after 3, 6 or 9 weeks on the respective diets. The TBA assay was used to assess lipid peroxidation in the GT muscle. Diabetes elevated catalase activity in all muscles while it had a slight lowering effect on SOD and GSH-Px activities in the GT and TA muscles. In the C $-$ Fe rats, catalase activity declined and remained depressed in all muscles except the heart. There was an elevation in GSH-Px and SOD in the GT muscles of these animals after 6 weeks but not after 9 weeks of consuming the low iron diet. The Db $-$ Fe animals were unable to respond to the diabetic state with catalase activity as high as observed in the Db + Fe rats. Treatment with insulin or iron returned catalase to control levels. The C $-$ Fe animals had significantly lower levels of lipid peroxidation than the other groups at 6 and 9 weeks. Refeeding an iron adequate diet resulted in an increase in lipid peroxidation levels. These studies indicate that skeletal muscle free radical scavenging enzymes are sensitive to metabolic states and that dietary iron influences lipid peroxidation in this tissue. ^

THE APPLICATION OF PATH ANALYSIS TO ASSESSMENT OF IRON NUTRITIONAL STATUS IN MAN

Path analysis has been applied to components of the iron metabolic system with the intent of suggesting an integrated procedure for better evaluating iron nutritional status at the community level. The primary variables of interest in this study were (1) iron stores, (2) total iron-binding capacity, (3) serum ferritin, (4) serum iron, (5) transferrin saturation, and (6) hemoglobin concentration. Correlation coefficients for relationships among these variables were obtained from published literature and postulated in a series of models using measures of those variables that are feasible to include in a community nutritional survey. Models were built upon known information about the metabolism of iron and were limited by what had been reported in the literature in terms of correlation coefficients or quantitative relationships. Data were pooled from various studies and correlations of the same bivariate relationships were averaged after z- transformations. Correlation matrices were then constructed by transforming the average values back into correlation coefficients. The results of path analysis in this study indicate that hemoglobin is not a good indicator of early iron deficiency. It does not account for variance in iron stores. On the other hand, 91% of the variance in iron stores is explained by serum ferritin and total iron-binding capacity. In addition, the magnitude of the path coefficient (.78) of the serum ferritin-iron stores relationship signifies that serum ferritin is the most important predictor of iron stores in the proposed model. Finally, drawing upon known relations among variables and the amount of variance explained in path models, it is suggested that the following blood measures should be made in assessing community iron deficiency: (1) serum ferritin, (2) total iron-binding capacity, (3) serum iron, (4) transferrin saturation, and (5) hemoglobin concentration. These measures (with acceptable ranges and cut-off points) could make possible the complete evaluation of all three stages of iron deficiency in those persons surveyed at the community level. ^

A novel iron-regulated metal transporter from plants identified by functional expression in yeast.

Iron is an essential nutrient for virtually all organisms. The IRT1 (iron-regulated transporter) gene of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, encoding a probable Fe(II) transporter, was cloned by functional expression in a yeast strain defective for iron uptake. Yeast expressing IRT1 possess a novel Fe(II) uptake activity that is strongly inhibited by Cd. IRT1 is predicted to be an integral membrane protein with a metal-binding domain. Data base comparisons and Southern blot analysis indicated that IRT1 is a member of a gene family in Arabidopsis. Related sequences were also found in the genomes of rice, yeast, nematodes, and humans. In Arabidopsis, IRT1 is expressed in roots, is induced by iron deficiency, and has altered regulation in plant lines bearing mutations that affect the iron uptake system. These results provide the first molecular insight into iron transport by plants.

A desregulação da homeostase do ferro: base molecular e patologias associadas

A homeostase do ferro requer um rigoroso processo de regulação, uma vez que este é um elemento essencial para alguns dos mecanismos celulares básicos mas, quando se encontra em excesso, origina profundos danos celulares e falha de órgãos. Dado que o organismo humano não possui um mecanismo ativo de excreção de ferro, é essencial que a sua homeostase seja estabelecida através de uma estreita comunicação entre os locais de absorção, utilização e armazenamento. Esta interligação é conseguida, essencialmente, através da ação de uma hormona circulante, a hepcidina. A hepcidina é sintetizada ao nível dos hepatócitos do fígado, sendo a sua expressão aumentada pelos níveis de ferro e inflamação e suprimida pela eritropoiese e hipoxia. A hepcidina regula negativamente a absorção duodenal do ferro proveniente da alimentação, a libertação pelos macrófagos do ferro resultante da fagocitose dos glóbulos vermelhos senescentes, assim como a libertação do ferro armazenado nos hepatócitos. A hemocromatose hereditátria (HH) do tipo 1 é uma doença de transmissão autossómica recessiva associada a mutações no gene HFE (p.Cys282Tyr e p.His63Asp). É a patologia humana mais comum de sobrecarga primária em ferro, apresenta penetrância incompleta, e é um dos distúrbios genéticos mais frequentes em caucasianos de ascendência Norte-Europeia. Na hemocromatose, apesar de haver um excesso de ferro no organismo, este facto não é refletido no nível de expressão da hormona hepcidina (cujos níveis deveriam aumentar). Pelo contrário, o nível de expressão da hepcidina encontra-se diminuído o que perpetua a constante absorção do ferro a nível duodenal. Os sintomas associados à doença iniciam-se geralmente na meia-idade e começam por consistir em sintomas gerais de fadiga e dores articulares. No entanto, a progressiva acumulação do ferro em vários órgãos (tais como fígado, coração e pâncreas) provoca aí graves danos, tais como cirrose, carcinoma hepatocelular, cardiomiopatias e diabetes. Para além da HH do tipo 1, podem ocorrer outros tipos de hemocromatose por mutações noutros genes relacionados com o metabolismo do ferro (tais como TFR2, HJV, HAMP, SLC40A1, etc). Mutações em genes como HAMP e HJV associam-se a hemocromatoses mais graves, de início ainda na juventude (hemocromatose juvenil). A implementação no nosso laboratório da nova metodologia de Next-Generation Sequencing permitiu-nos realizar a pesquisa de variantes simultaneamente em 6 genes relacionados com o metabolismo do ferro, em 88 doentes com fenótipo de hemocromatose hereditária não-clássica. Foram identificadas 54 variantes diferentes sendo algumas delas novas. Estudos in silico e estudos funcionais in vitro (em linhas celulares) permitiram-nos comprovar a patogenicidade de algumas das variantes novas e compreender os mecanismos moleculares subjacentes ao desenvolvimento da sobrecarga em ferro. Pelo contrário, no lado oposto do espetro das patologias relacionadas com o ferro, encontram-se as anemias por falta de ferro (anemias ferropénicas). A Organização Mundial de Saúde define anemia quando os níveis de hemoglobina no sangue são menores do que 12 g/dL na Mulher e 13 g/dL no Homem. A hemoglobina é a proteína existente nos glóbulos vermelhos do sangue, responsável pelo transporte de oxigénio no organismo, e cuja molécula é um tetrâmero formado por 4 cadeias polipeptídicas (as globinas) e 4 grupos heme que contêm 4 átomos de ferro. A falta de ferro impede que se formem as moléculas de hemoglobina a níveis normais em cerca de 20% da população portuguesa e isso é devido a carências alimentares ou a dificuldades na absorção do ferro proveniente da alimentação. Entre os fatores genéticos moduladores desta última situação parecem estar algumas variantes polimórficas no gene TMPRSS6, codificante da proteína Matriptase-2, um dos agentes envolvidos na regulação da expressão da hepcidina. Por outro lado, mutações neste gene dão origem a anemias ferropénicas graves, refratárias ao tratamento oral com ferro (Iron Refractory Iron Deficiency Anaemia - IRIDA). As Hemoglobinopatias são outro tipo de anemia hereditária. Estas não estão relacionadas com o défice de ferro mas sim com defeitos nas cadeias globínicas, constituintes da hemoglobina (α2β2). As hemoglobinopatias que estão relacionadas com um problema quantitativo, ou seja quando há ausência ou diminuição de síntese de uma cadeia globínica, denominam-se talassémias: beta-talassémia, alfa-talassémia, delta-talassémia, etc, consoante o gene afetado. Por outro lado, quando o problema é de carácter qualitativo, ou seja ocorre a síntese de uma cadeia globínica estruturalmente anómala, esta é denominada uma variante de hemoglobina. Enquadra-se neste último grupo a Anemia das Células Falciformes ou Drepanocitose. As hemoglobinopatias são das patologias genéticas mais frequentes no mundo, sendo que nalguns locais são um grave problema de saúde pública. Em Portugal foram realizados estudos epidemiológicos que permitiram determinar a frequência de portadores na população e foi implementado um programa de prevenção.

Duodenal expression of iron transport molecules in untreated haemochromatosis subjects

Background and aims: In HFE associated hereditary haemochromatosis, the duodenal enterocyte behaves as if iron deficient and previous reports have shown increased duodenal expression of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and iron regulated gene 1 (Ireg1) in affected subjects. In those studies, many patients had undergone venesection, which is a potent stimulus of iron absorption. Our study investigated duodenal expression of DMT1 ( IRE and non-IRE), Ireg1, hephaestin, and duodenal cytochrome-b (Dyctb) in untreated C282Y homozygous haemochromatosis patients, iron deficient patients, and iron replete subjects. Methods: Total RNA was extracted from duodenal biopsies and expression of the iron transport genes was assessed by ribonuclease protection assay. Results: Expression of DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 was increased 3 - 5-fold in iron deficient subjects compared with iron replete subjects. Duodenal expression of DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 was similar in haemochromatosis patients and iron replete subjects but in haemochromatosis patients with elevated serum ferritin concentrations, both DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 expression were inappropriately increased relative to serum ferritin concentration. Hephaestin and Dcytb levels were not upregulated in haemochromatosis. DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 levels showed significant inverse correlations with serum ferritin concentration in each group of patients. Conclusions: These findings are consistent with DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 playing primary roles in the adaptive response to iron deficiency. Untreated haemochromatosis patients showed inappropriate increases in DMT1 ( IRE) and Ireg1 expression for a given level of serum ferritin concentration, although the actual level of expression of these iron transport genes was not significantly different from that of normal subjects.

Anaemia and vitamin A deficiency in poor urban pregnant women of Bangladesh

This cross-sectional study investigated the prevalence of anaemia and vitamin A deficiency (VAD) among pregnant women in a poor urban population of Bangladesh. It also examined the association of various socio-economic and dietary factors with anaemia and vitamin A status. A maternal and child health clinic in Dhaka city, Bangladesh was used to obtain the sample. Three hundred and eighty three pregnant women, aged 20-30 years, of 20-30 weeks gestation were randomly selected from women on their first presentation for antenatal care. Socio-economic, pregnancy related information, usual dietary pattern, and anthropometric data were collected. Blood haemoglobin and serum retinol (vitamin A) concentrations were determined. About 40% of the pregnant women were anaemic (haemoglobin <11.0 g/dl) and 45% had low serum vitamin A levels (<30 mug/dl); with 8.6% having sub-clinical VAD (serum retinol <20 μg/dl). The women with low serum vitamin A levels had 1.8 times greater risk of being anaemic than did the women with normal vitamin A status. Food frequency data revealed that a large proportion of these women did not consume egg (49%), milk (25%), meat (31%), liver (83%), large fish (32%), small fish (39%) and sweet pumpkin (52%) at all; while about 25% of the women reported consuming dark green leafy vegetables (DGLV) and 64% reported an intake of fruit at least four servings a week. The pregnant women who were either illiterate or received only informal education (up to grade ten) had significantly lower haemoglobin and serum vitamin A levels compared to those who completed at least a secondary school certificate. The women whose husbands were illiterate or received only informal education had significantly (P=0.01) lower serum vitamin A levels than those whose husbands had received at least a secondary school certificate. The women who came from families with a per-capita income below the poverty line had significantly lower haemoglobin and serum vitamin A levels compared to those who came from families with a per-capita income above the poverty line. The women who consumed three servings or less of DGLV and fruit per week had significantly lower haemoglobin and serum vitamin A levels than those who consumed four or more servings a week. The women who never consumed large fish had significantly lower haemoglobin compared to those who reported at least one serving a week. Furthermore, the women who never consumed sweet pumpkin had significantly lower serum vitamin A than the women who ate at least one serving a week. By multiple regression analysis, intake of meat, DGLV and fruit, and serum vitamin A levels were found to have a significant independent relationship with haemoglobin. The overall F-ratio (9.9) was highly significant (P=0.000), the adjusted R-square was 0.086 (multiple R=0.309). Multiple regression analysis for serum vitamin A also revealed a significant independent relationship with per capita income, haemoglobin levels, intakes of DGLV and sweet pumpkin. The overall F-ratio (10.2) was highly significant (P=0.000), the adjusted R-square was 0.10 (multiple R=0.312). In conclusion, anaemia and vitamin A deficiency were highly prevalent among poor urban pregnant women in Bangladesh. Various socio-economic and dietary factors may influence the anaemia and vitamin A status of these women. The present study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive intervention strategy, which include both nutritional and environmental factors, to improve the nutritional status of this population.

Efficacy of twice-weekly multiple micronutrient supplementation for improving the hemoglobin and micronutrient status of anemic adolescent schoolgirls in Bangladesh

Background: Although iron deficiency is a major cause of anemia, other micronutrient deficiencies may also play a role. Objective: We examined whether multiple micronutrient supplementation is more efficacious than is supplementation with iron and folic acid alone for improving the hemoglobin and iron status of anemic adolescent girls in Bangladesh. Design: Anemic (hemoglobin < 12.0 g/dL) girls (n = 197) aged 14-18 y from rural schools in Dhaka District were entered into a randomized double-blind trial and received twice-weekly supplements of iron and folic acid (IFA group) or multiple micronutrients (15 micronutrients, including iron and folic acid; MMN group) for 12 wk. Results: At recruitment, the characteristics of the girls in the 2 groups were not significantly different, except for family size and body mass index. At the end of the study, although both groups benefited significantly from supplementation, mean changes in hemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations were not significantly different between groups. Compared with the IFA group, girls in the MMN group had significantly greater increases in mean serum vitamin A, plasma vitamin C, red blood cell folic acid, and riboflavin concentrations (assessed as erythrocyte glutathione reductase activation coefficient). After 12 wk of supplementation, only the prevalence of vitamins A and C and riboflavin deficiencies decreased more significantly in the MMN group than in the IFA group. Conclusions: Twice-weekly MMN supplementation for 12 wk significantly improved the status of the micronutrients assessed but was not more efficacious than was supplementation with iron and folic acid alone in improving the hematologic status of anemic adolescent girls. More frequent doses may be needed to achieve full benefit.

Iron status in early life and associations with developmental outcomes

Infants and young children are at particular risk of iron deficiency and its associated consequences for growth and development. The main objectives of this thesis were to quantify iron intakes, status and determinants of status in two year olds; explore determinants of neonatal iron stores; investigate associations between iron status at birth and two years with neurodevelopmental outcomes at two years and explore the influence of growth on iron status in early childhood, using data from the Cork BASELINE (Babies after SCOPE: Evaluating Longitudinal Impact using Neurological and Nutritional Endpoints) Birth Cohort Study (n=2137). Participants were followed prospectively with interviewer-led questionnaires and clinical assessments at day 2 and at 2, 6, 12 and 24 months. At two years, there was a low prevalence of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anaemia in this cohort, representing the largest study of iron status in toddlers in Europe, to date. The increased consumption of iron-fortified products and compliance with recommendations to limit unmodified cows’ milk intakes in toddlers has contributed to the observed improvements in status. Low serum ferritin concentrations at birth, which reflect neonatal iron stores, were shown to track through to two years of age; delivery by Caesarean section, being born small-for-gestational age and maternal obesity and smoking in pregnancy were all associated with significantly lower neonatal iron stores. Despite a low prevalence of iron deficiency in this cohort, both a mean corpuscular volume <74fl and ferritin concentrations <20μg/l were associated with lower neurodevelopmental outcomes at two years. An inverse association between growth in the second year of life and iron status at two years was also observed. This thesis has presented data from one of the largest, extensively-characterised cohorts of young children, to date, to explore iron and its associations with growth and development.