Zeitaufgelöste Photoelektronenspektroskopie an Kaliumatomen in intensiven Femtosekundenlaserfeldern

Gegenstand dieser Dissertation sind Ultrakurzzeitexperimente im Bereich der kohärenten Kontrolle im schwachen wie auch im starken Feld. Untersucht wird am Modellsystem Kaliumatom die resonanzunterstützte Anregungs- und Ionisationsdynamik mit Hilfe der Photoelektronenspektroskopie. Die Kaliumatome werden mittels eines Atomstrahles bzw. mit Hilfe von Dispensern ins Vakuum entlassen. Angeregt und ionisiert werden sie mit Hilfe von Femtosekundenlaserpulsen (mit einer Pulslänge größer/gleich 30 fs). Die Flugzeiten der durch Ionisation freigesetzten Photoelektronen werden mit Hilfe einer magnetischen Flasche detektiert und in ihre kinetischen Energien umkalibriert. Drei Experimente werden in dieser Arbeit beschrieben: Im schwachen Feld sind Interferenzen von freien Elektronenwellenpaketen das Thema: Mit Hilfe eines Analogons zu Thomas Youngs Doppelspaltexperiment wird demonstriert, dass Kohärenzeigenschaften von Femtosekundenlaserpulsen auf Elektronenwellenpakete, welche sich im Kontinuum befinden, übertragbar sind. Als Referenzsystem für das Verständnis der Starkfeldkontrolle interessiert das Autler-Townes-Doublet im Photoelektronenspektrum des Kaliumatoms: Es wird gezeigt, dass sowohl durch das starke Laserfeld, als auch auf Grund der optische Phase zweier Laserpulse, die quantenmechanische Phase eines Atomzustandes gleichermaßen manipuliert werden kann. Das aufgezeigte Experiment liefert die Basis für ein in unseren Laboratorien entwickeltes völlig neuartiges Starkfeldkontrollszenario, welches „Selective Population Of Dressed States“ (SPODS) getauft wurde. Im dritten Experiment wird der Starkfeldbereich auf eine Laserintensität über 3*10^13 W/cm^2 ausgedehnt! Beginnend mit I = 1*10^11 W/cm^2 bis zur eben angegebenen größten Intensität wird mittels linear wie auch zirkular polarisiertem Laserlicht das Kaliumatom bei einer Vielzahl von Messungen ionisiert werden. Mit Hilfe der gemessenen Photoelektronenspektren wird in Abhängigkeit der Laserintensität die Aufspaltung des Autler-Townes-Doublets vermessen. Zudem werden unter Einbeziehung des schwachen und des starken Feldes Steigungsanalysen der Schwell- sowie der Above-Threshold-Ionisation-Photoelektronenausbeute aufgezeigt. Im Gegensatz zu Starkfeldexperimenten an nicht resonanten Systemen (z. B. Xenon), ist der Fall der resonanten Anregung bislang weitgehend ununtersucht. Für die resonante Anregung zeigt diese Arbeit somit erstmals einen Referenzdatensatz.

Intrinsic channel closing in strong-field single ionization of H2

Die Ionisation von H2 in intensiven Laserpulsen wird mit Hilfe der numerischen Integration der zeitabhängigen Schrödingergleichung für ein Einelektronenmodell untersucht, das die Vibrationsbewegung berücksichtigt. Die Spektren der kinetischen Elektronenenergie hängen stark von der Vibrationsquantenzahl des erzeugten H2+ Ions ab. Für bestimmte Vibrationszustände ist die Ausbeute der Elektronen in der Mitte des Plateaus stark erhöht. Der Effekt wird "channel closings" zugeschrieben, die in Atomen durch Variation der Laserintensität beobachtet wurden. The ionization of H2 in intense laser pulses is studied by numerical integration of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for a single-active-electron model including the vibrational motion. The electron kinetic energy spectra in high-order above-threshold ionization are strongly dependent on the vibrational quantum number of the created H2+ ion. For certain vibrational states, the electron yield in the mid-plateau region is strongly enhanced. The effect is attributed to channel closings, which were previously observed in atoms by varying the laser intensity.

Effect of dressing on high-order harmonic generation in vibrating H2 molecules

Wir entwickeln die Starkfeldnäherung für die Erzeugung hoher Harmonischer in Wasserstoffmolekülen, wobei die Vibrationsbewegung berücksichtigt wird, sowie die laserinduzierte Kopplung zwischen den beiden untersten Born-Oppenheimer-Zuständen im Molekülion, das durch die anfängliche Ionisation des Moleküls erzeugt wird. Wir zeigen, dass die Kopplung bei längeren Laserwellenlängen (≈ 2 μm) wichtig wird und zu einer Reduzierung der Erzeugung von Harmonischen führt, sowie zu einer Änderung des Verhältnisses von Harmonischen in verschiedenen Isotopen. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- We develop the strong-field approximation for high-order harmonic generation in hydrogen molecules, including the vibrational motion and the laser-induced coupling of the lowest two Born-Oppenheimer states in the molecular ion that is created by the initial ionization of the molecule. We show that the field dressing becomes important at long laser wavelengths (≈ 2 μm), leading to an overall reduction of harmonic generation and modifying the ratio of harmonic signals from different isotopes.

Influence of the buffer environment on the Relative Biological Effectiveness of carbon ion radiation, investigated by Scanning Force Microscopy and gel electrophoresis

This work focuses on the analysis of the influence of environment on the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of carbon ions on molecular level. Due to the high relevance of RBE for medical applications, such as tumor therapy, and radiation protection in space, DNA damages have been investigated in order to understand the biological efficiency of heavy ion radiation. The contribution of this study to the radiobiology research consists in the analysis of plasmid DNA damages induced by carbon ion radiation in biochemical buffer environments, as well as in the calculation of the RBE of carbon ions on DNA level by mean of scanning force microscopy (SFM). In order to study the DNA damages, besides the common electrophoresis method, a new approach has been developed by using SFM. The latter method allows direct visualisation and measurement of individual DNA fragments with an accuracy of several nanometres. In addition, comparison of the results obtained by SFM and agarose gel electrophoresis methods has been performed in the present study. Sparsely ionising radiation, such as X-rays, and densely ionising radiation, such as carbon ions, have been used to irradiate plasmid DNA in trishydroxymethylaminomethane (Tris buffer) and 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES buffer) environments. These buffer environments exhibit different scavenging capacities for hydroxyl radical (HO0), which is produced by ionisation of water and plays the major role in the indirect DNA damage processes. Fragment distributions have been measured by SFM over a large length range, and as expected, a significantly higher degree of DNA damages was observed for increasing dose. Also a higher amount of double-strand breaks (DSBs) was observed after irradiation with carbon ions compared to X-ray irradiation. The results obtained from SFM measurements show that both types of radiation induce multiple fragmentation of the plasmid DNA in the dose range from D = 250 Gy to D = 1500 Gy. Using Tris environments at two different concentrations, a decrease of the relative biological effectiveness with the rise of Tris concentration was observed. This demonstrates the radioprotective behavior of the Tris buffer solution. In contrast, a lower scavenging capacity for all other free radicals and ions, produced by the ionisation of water, was registered in the case of HEPES buffer compared to Tris solution. This is reflected in the higher RBE values deduced from SFM and gel electrophoresis measurements after irradiation of the plasmid DNA in 20 mM HEPES environment compared to 92 mM Tris solution. These results show that HEPES and Tris environments play a major role on preventing the indirect DNA damages induced by ionising radiation and on the relative biological effectiveness of heavy ion radiation. In general, the RBE calculated from the SFM measurements presents higher values compared to gel electrophoresis data, for plasmids irradiated in all environments. Using a large set of data, obtained from the SFM measurements, it was possible to calculate the survive rate over a larger range, from 88% to 98%, while for gel electrophoresis measurements the survive rates have been calculated only for values between 96% and 99%. While the gel electrophoresis measurements provide information only about the percentage of plasmids DNA that suffered a single DSB, SFM can count the small plasmid fragments produced by multiple DSBs induced in a single plasmid. Consequently, SFM generates more detailed information regarding the amount of the induced DSBs compared to gel electrophoresis, and therefore, RBE can be calculated with more accuracy. Thus, SFM has been proven to be a more precise method to characterize on molecular level the DNA damage induced by ionizing radiations.

Vektorielle Quantenkontrolle an Molekülen mit Hilfe von maßgeschneiderten Femtosekundenlaserpulsen

Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit zwei Aspekten der kohärenten Quantenkontrolle, die sich aus der räumlichen Struktur von Molekülen und der daraus folgenden Vektoreigenschaft der Laser-Molekül-Wechselwirkung ergeben. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wird zum ersten Mal experimentell gezeigt, dass es möglich ist, den vektoriellen Charakter der Licht-Molekül-Wechselwirkung gezielt zu einer besseren Kontrolle der Moleküldynamik auszunutzen. Dazu wurde in einem Molekularstrahlexperiment die Multi-Photonen-Ionisation von K$_2$-Dimeren durch polarisationsgeformte Femtosekundenlaserpulse untersucht. Mit Hilfe der Technik der Polarisationsformung ist es möglich, Laserpulse zu generieren, bei denen nicht nur der zeitliche Verlauf der Einhüllenden des elektrischen Feldes, sondern auch der zeitliche Verlauf des Polarisationszustandes manipuliert werden kann. Um die optimale Pulsform zu finden, wurde ein adaptives, rückgekoppeltes Verfahren angewandt. Es wird gezeigt, dass im Vergleich zu reiner Phasenformung die Polarisationsformung neue, bisher nicht zugängliche Kontrollmöglichkeiten bietet und so zu einer qualitativ neuen Art von Kontrolle führt. Der zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit hat die Ausrichtung von Molekülen durch ultrakurze Laserpulse zum Thema. Dabei wird zum ersten Mal systematisch untersucht, ob und inwieweit das erzeugte Rotationswellenpaket und damit die erzielte transiente Ausrichtung durch geformte Laserpulse manipuliert und kontrolliert werden kann. Im Experiment wurde mit linear polarisierten phasengeformten Laserpulsen N$_2$ und O$_2$ in Gasphase und bei Raumtemperatur ausgerichtet und der zeitliche Verlauf der so erzeugten transienten Molekülausrichtung aufgenommen. Es wird gezeigt, dass mit Hilfe einer adaptiven Optimierung der Pulsform des Lasers der zeitlichen Verlauf der transienten Molekülausrichtung gezielt manipuliert werden kann. Des weiteren wird die transiente Molekülausrichtung untersucht, die durch Doppelpulse, Pulszüge und durch Pulse mit TOD-Phase erzeugt wird.

Zustandsselektive Untersuchung von Anregungs-, Ionisations- und Dissoziationsprozessen in molekularem Wasserstoff mit Fluoreszenzspektroskopie nach Anregung mit schmalbandiger Synchrotronstrahlung

Die Fluoreszenzspektroskopie ist eine der wenigen Methoden, die eine Untersuchung von Zerfallsprozessen nach einer Anregung mit schmalbandiger Synchrotronstrahlung ermöglicht, wenn die Zerfallsprodukte nicht geladen sind. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden in erster Linie Anregungen des molekularen Wasserstoffs untersucht, die zur Erzeugung ungeladener aber angeregter Fragmente führten. Eine Bestimmung der absoluten Querschnitte für die drei möglichen Zerfallskanäle: Ionisation, Dissoziation und molekulare Fluoreszenz nach einer Anregung des Wasserstoffmoleküls im Anregungswellenlängenbereich zwischen 72,4 nm und 80 nm stand im ersten Teil der Arbeit im Vordergrund. Die oben erwähnten Zerfallskanäle und das Transmissionsspektrum wurden simultan aufgenommen und mit Hilfe des Lambert-Beerschen-Gesetzes absolut ermittelt. Die Verwendung der erhaltenen Querschnitte ermöglichte die Bestimmung der Dominanz der einzelnen Zerfallskanäle für 3p-D Pi-, 4p-D' Pi- und 5p-D’’ Pi-Zustände in Abhängigkeit von Vibrationsniveaus. Diese Zustände koppeln über eine nicht adiabatische Kopplung mit einem 2p-C Pi-Zustand, was zur Prädissoziation führt. Des Weiteren koppeln die angeregten Zustände zu höher liegenden Rydberg-Zuständen, damit wird eine starke Variation der Ionisationswahrscheinlichkeit in Abhängigkeit von Vibrationsniveaus verursacht. Die Stärke der Kopplung ist dabei entscheidend welcher der drei möglichen Zerfallswege dominant zur Relaxation des angeregten Zustandes beiträgt. Alle Werte wurden mit theoretisch ermittelten Daten aus MQDT- Berechnungen [Phys. Rev. A 82 (2010), 062511] verglichen und zeigten sehr gute Übereinstimmungen. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit ist eine neue Apparatur für winkel- und zeitauflösende Photon-Photon-Koinzidenz entwickelt worden. Die zwei Off-Axis-Parabolspiegel, die das Herzstück der Apparatur bilden, parallelisieren die im Fokus abgestrahlte Emission des doppelt angeregten Wasserstoffmoleküls und projizieren diese auf jeweils einen Detektor. Die an zwei Strahlrohren bei BESSY II durchgeführten Messungen zeigten gute Übereinstimmungen mit den schon vorher veröffentlichten Daten: Messungen [J. Chem. Phys. 88 (1988), 3016] und theoretische Berechnungen [J. Phys. B: At Mol. Opt. Phys. 38 (2005), 1093-1105] der Koinzidenzrate in Abhängigkeit von der anregenden Strahlung. Durch die Bestimmung der gemessenen Zerfallszeit einzelner Prozesse konnten einzelne doppelt angeregte Zustände identifiziert werden.

Wind-tunnel modelling of dispersion from a scalar area source in urban-like roughness

A wind-tunnel study was conducted to investigate ventilation of scalars from urban-like geometries at neighbourhood scale by exploring two different geometries a uniform height roughness and a non-uniform height roughness, both with an equal plan and frontal density of λ p = λ f = 25%. In both configurations a sub-unit of the idealized urban surface was coated with a thin layer of naphthalene to represent area sources. The naphthalene sublimation method was used to measure directly total area-averaged transport of scalars out of the complex geometries. At the same time, naphthalene vapour concentrations controlled by the turbulent fluxes were detected using a fast Flame Ionisation Detection (FID) technique. This paper describes the novel use of a naphthalene coated surface as an area source in dispersion studies. Particular emphasis was also given to testing whether the concentration measurements were independent of Reynolds number. For low wind speeds, transfer from the naphthalene surface is determined by a combination of forced and natural convection. Compared with a propane point source release, a 25% higher free stream velocity was needed for the naphthalene area source to yield Reynolds-number-independent concentration fields. Ventilation transfer coefficients w T /U derived from the naphthalene sublimation method showed that, whilst there was enhanced vertical momentum exchange due to obstacle height variability, advection was reduced and dispersion from the source area was not enhanced. Thus, the height variability of a canopy is an important parameter when generalising urban dispersion. Fine resolution concentration measurements in the canopy showed the effect of height variability on dispersion at street scale. Rapid vertical transport in the wake of individual high-rise obstacles was found to generate elevated point-like sources. A Gaussian plume model was used to analyse differences in the downstream plumes. Intensified lateral and vertical plume spread and plume dilution with height was found for the non-uniform height roughness

Solar modulation in surface atmospheric electricity

The solar wind modulates the flux of galactic cosmic rays impinging on Earth inversely with solar activity. Cosmic ray ionisation is the major source of air’s electrical conductivity over the oceans and well above the continents. Differential solar modulation of the cosmic ray energy spectrum modifies the cosmic ray ionisation at different latitudes,varying the total atmospheric columnar conductance. This redistributes current flow in the global atmospheric electrical circuit, including the local vertical current density and the related surface potential gradient. Surface vertical current density and potential gradient measurements made independently at Lerwick Observatory,Shetland,from 1978 to 1985 are compared with modelled changes in cosmic ray ionisation arising from solar activity changes. Both the lower troposphere atmospheric electricity quantities are significantly increased at cosmic ray maximum(solar minimum),with a proportional change greater than that of the cosmic ray change.

Liquid ultraviolet matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization - mass spectrometry for automated proteomic analysis

We have combined several key sample preparation steps for the use of a liquid matrix system to provide high analytical sensitivity in automated ultraviolet -- matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation -- mass spectrometry (UV-MALDI-MS). This new sample preparation protocol employs a matrix-mixture which is based on the glycerol matrix-mixture described by Sze et al. The low-femtomole sensitivity that is achievable with this new preparation protocol enables proteomic analysis of protein digests comparable to solid-state matrix systems. For automated data acquisition and analysis, the MALDI performance of this liquid matrix surpasses the conventional solid-state MALDI matrices. Besides the inherent general advantages of liquid samples for automated sample preparation and data acquisition the use of the presented liquid matrix significantly reduces the extent of unspecific ion signals in peptide mass fingerprints compared to typically used solid matrices, such as 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) or alpha-cyano-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA). In particular, matrix and low-mass ion signals and ion signals resulting from cation adduct formation are dramatically reduced. Consequently, the confidence level of protein identification by peptide mass mapping of in-solution and in-gel digests is generally higher.

Stress-induced changes in the Schizosaccharomyces pombe proteome using two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry and a novel integrated robotics platform

Robotic and manual methods have been used to obtain identification of significantly changing proteins regulated when Schizosaccharomyces pombe is exposed to oxidative stress. Differently treated S. pombe cells were lysed, labelled with CyDye and analysed by two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis. Gel images analysed off-line, using the DeCyder image analysis software [GE Healthcare, Amersham, UK] allowed selection of significantly regulated proteins. Proteins displaying differential expression were excised robotically for manual digestion and identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation - mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Additionally the same set of proteins displaying differential expression were automatically cut and digested using a prototype robotic platform. Automated MALDI-MS, peak label assignment and database searching were utilised to identify as many proteins as possible. The results achieved by the robotic system were compared to manual methods. The identification of all significantly altered proteins provides an annotated peroxide stress-related proteome that can be used as a base resource against which other stress-induced proteomic changes can be compared.

The assessment of enriched apoplastic extracts using proteomic approaches

In plant tissues the extracellular environment or apoplast, incorporating the cell wall, is a highly dynamic compartment with a role in many important plant processes including defence, development, signalling and assimilate partitioning. Soluble apoplast proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana, Triticum aestivum and Oryza sativa were separated by two-dimensional electrophoresis. The molecular weights and isoelectric points for the dominant proteins were established prior to excision, sequencing and identification by matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI - TOF MS). From the selected spots, 23 proteins from O. sativa and 25 proteins from A. thaliana were sequenced, of which nine identifications were made in O. sativa (39%) and 14 in A. thaliana (56%). This analysis revealed that: (i) patterns of proteins revealed by two-dimensional electrophoresis were different for each species indicating that speciation could occur at the level of the apoplast, (ii) of the proteins characterised many belonged to diverse families reflecting the multiple functions of the apoplast and (iii), a large number of the apoplast proteins could not be identified indicating that the majority of extracellular proteins are yet to be assigned. The principal proteins identified in the aqueous matrix of the apoplast were involved in defence, i.e. germin-like proteins or glucanases, and cell expansion, i.e. β-D-glucan glucohydrolases. This study has demonstrated that proteomic analysis can be used to resolve the apoplastic protein complement and to identify adaptive changes induced by environmental effectors.

Hydroponic isotope labelling of entire plants (HILEP) for quantitative plant proteomics; an oxidative stress case study

Hydroponic isotope labelling of entire plants (HILEP) is a cost-effective method enabling metabolic labelling of whole and mature plants with a stable isotope such as N-15. By utilising hydroponic media that contain N-15 inorganic salts as the sole nitrogen source, near to 100% N-15-labelling of proteins can be achieved. In this study, it is shown that HILEP, in combination with mass spectrometry, is suitable for relative protein quantitation of seven week-old Arabidopsis plants submitted to oxidative stress. Protein extracts from pooled N-14- and N-15-hydroponically grown plants were fractionated by SDS-PAGE, digested and analysed by liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). Proteins were identified and the spectra of N-14/N-15 peptide pairs were extracted using their m/z chromatographic retention time, isotopic distributions, and the m/z difference between the N-14 and N-15 peptides. Relative amounts were calculated as the ratio of the sum of the peak areas of the two distinct N-14 and N-15 peptide isotope envelopes. Using Mascot and the open source trans-proteomic pipeline (TPP), the data processing was automated for global proteome quantitation down to the isoform level by extracting isoform specific peptides. With this combination of metabolic labelling and mass spectrometry it was possible to show differential protein expression in the apoplast of plants submitted to oxidative stress. Moreover, it was possible to discriminate between differentially expressed isoforms belonging to the same protein family, such as isoforms of xylanases and pathogen-related glucanases (PR 2). (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Liquid ultraviolet matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry for automated proteomic analysis

We have combined several key sample preparation steps for the use of a liquid matrix system to provide high analytical sensitivity in automated ultraviolet - matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionisation - mass spectrometry (UV-MALDI-MS). This new sample preparation protocol employs a matrix-mixture which is based on the glycerol matrix-mixture described by Sze et al. U. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. 1998, 9, 166-174). The low-ferntomole sensitivity that is achievable with this new preparation protocol enables proteomic analysis of protein digests comparable to solid-state matrix systems. For automated data acquisition and analysis, the MALDI performance of this liquid matrix surpasses the conventional solid-state MALDI matrices. Besides the inherent general advantages of liquid samples for automated sample preparation and data acquisition the use of the presented liquid matrix significantly reduces the extent of unspecific ion signals in peptide mass fingerprints compared to typically used solid matrices, such as 2,5-dihydrox-ybenzoic acid (DHB) or alpha-cyano-hydroxycinnamic acid (CHCA). In particular, matrix and lowmass ion signals and ion signals resulting from cation adduct formation are dramatically reduced. Consequently, the confidence level of protein identification by peptide mass mapping of in-solution and in-gel digests is generally higher.

Correlation-type structure activity relationships for the kinetics of gas-phase RO2 self-reactions and reaction with HO2

Structure activity relationships (SARs) are presented for the gas-phase reactions of RO2 with HO2, and the self- and cross-reactions of RO2. For RO2+HO2 the SAR is based upon a correlation between the logarithm of the measured rate coefficient and a calculated ionisation potential for the molecule R-CH=CH2, R being the same group in both the radical and molecular analogue. The correlation observed is strong and only for one RO2 species does the measured rate coefficient deviate by more than a factor of two from the linear least-squares regression line. For the self- and cross-reactions of RO2 radicals, the SAR is based upon a correlation between the logarithm of the measured rate coefficient and the calculated electrostatic potential (ESP) at the equivalent carbon atom in the RH molecule to which oxygen is attached in RO2, again R being the same group in the molecule and the radical. For cases where R is a simple alkyl-group, a strong linear correlation observed. For RO2 radicals which contain lone pair-bearing substituents and for which the calculated ESP<-0.05 self-reaction rate coefficients appear to be insensitive to the value of the ESP. For RO2 of this type with ESP>-0.05 a linear relationship between log k and the ESP is again observed. Using the relationships, 84 out of the 85 rate coefficients used to develop the SARs are predicted to within a factor of three of their measured values. A relationship is also presented that allows the prediction of the Arrhenius parameters for the self-reactions of simple alkyl RO2 radicals. On the basis of the correlations, predictions of room-temperature rate coefficients are made for a number of atmospherically important peroxyl-peroxyl radical reactions. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.