Media, ecology and conservation:using the media to protect the world's wildlife and ecosystems

The second book in The Converging World series, Media, Ecology and Conservation focuses on global connectivity and the role of new digital and traditional media in bringing people together to protect the world's endangered wildlife and conserve fragile and threatened habitats. New media offers opportunities for like-minded individuals, community groups, businesses and public organisations to learn and work cooperatively for the good of all species. One of the key themes of this book explores the important issue of how new information and communication technologies mediate the natural world, and our understanding of our place in it. By exploring the role of film, television, video, photography and the internet in animal conservation in the USA, India, Africa, Australia and the United Kingdom John Blewitt investigates the politics of media representation surrounding important controversies such as the trade in bushmeat, whaling and habitat destruction. The work and achievements of media/conservation activists are located within a cultural framework that simultaneously loves nature, reveres animals but too often ignores the uncomfortable realities of species extinction and animal cruelty.

Influence of habitat on the reproductive ecology of the Amazonian palm, Mauritia flexuosa, in Roraima, Brazil

Although Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae) plays a pivotal role in the ecology and economy of the Amazon, and occurs in a variety of habitats, little is known about the influence of habitat on the reproductive biology of this palm. My dissertation focuses on the reproductive biology of M. flexuosa in three habitats in Roraima, Brazil: undisturbed forest, undisturbed forest-savanna ecotone, and savanna disturbed by plantations of the exotic tree, Acacia mangium. First, I calculated sex ratios and linked precipitation patterns with phenology. Sex ratios were female-biased. Precipitation was negatively associated with flowering, and positively associated with fruiting. Habitat appears to have no significant influence on phenology of M. flexuosa, although short-term climate variation may affect phenology of this species. Second, I examined floral biology, observed floral visitors, and performed exclusion experiments to determine the pollination system of M. flexuosa. Fruit set did not differ significantly between the visitor exclusion treatment and the control, but was significantly lowest in the wind + visitor exclusion treatment, suggesting that this dioecious palm is anemophilous, independent of habitat. Third, I identified the abiotic and biotic factors explaining variation in fruit mass, seed mass, seed number per fruit, and total fruit yield among habitats. Soil moisture and flooding during the wet season were the best predictors of fruit and seed output. The number of leaves, diameter at breast height, and height were all accurate predictors of reproductive output, but crown volume did not accurately predict fruit yields. Results re-evaluate traditional assumptions about wind-pollination in the tropics, and highlight abiotic and biotic factors responsible for variation in reproductive output of M. flexuosa, with implications for effective management of this palm. Finally, I interviewed harvesters and vendors to document the traditional knowledge and market dynamics of the fruit of M. flexuosa, buriti. Traditional knowledge corroborated results from scientific studies. Vendors argued that the price of buriti must increase, and must fluctuate with varying supply. With appropriate economic incentives to vendors/harvesters, Roraima may expand its market infrastructure for buriti, effectively stimulating the regional economy and practicing sustainable harvesting.

Does landscape context affect habitat value? The importance of seascape ecology in back-reef systems

Seascape ecology provides a useful framework from which to understand the processes governing spatial variability in ecological patterns. Seascape context, or the composition and pattern of habitat surrounding a focal patch, has the potential to impact resource availability, predator-prey interactions, and connectivity with other habitats. For my dissertation research, I combined a variety of approaches to examine how habitat quality for fishes is influenced by a diverse range of seascape factors in sub-tropical, back-reef ecosystems. In the first part of my dissertation, I examined how seascape context can affect reef fish communities on an experimental array of artificial reefs created in various seascape contexts in Abaco, Bahamas. I found that the amount of seagrass at large spatial scales was an important predictor of community assembly on these reefs. Additionally, seascape context had differing effects on various aspects of habitat quality for the most common reef species, White grunt Haemulon plumierii. The amount of seagrass at large spatial scales had positive effects on fish abundance and secondary production, but not on metrics of condition and growth. The second part of my dissertation focused on how foraging conditions for fish varied across a linear seascape gradient in the Loxahatchee River estuary in Florida, USA. Gray snapper, Lutjanus griseus, traded food quality for quantity along this estuarine gradient, maintaining similar growth rates and condition among sites. Additional work focused on identifying major energy flow pathways to two consumers in oyster-reef food webs in the Loxahatchee. Algal and microphytobenthos resource pools supported most of the production to these consumers, and body size for one of the consumers mediated food web linkages with surrounding mangrove habitats. All of these studies examined a different facet of the importance of seascape context in governing ecological processes occurring in focal habitats and underscore the role of connectivity among habitats in back-reef systems. The results suggest that management approaches consider the surrounding seascape when prioritizing areas for conservation or attempting to understand the impacts of seascape change on focal habitat patches. For this reason, spatially-based management approaches are recommended to most effectively manage back-reef systems.

Habitat Map for Lizard Island reef, Australia derived from a photo-transect survey field data collected in December 2011 and September/October 2012

An object based image analysis approach (OBIA) was used to create a habitat map of the Lizard Reef. Briefly, georeferenced dive and snorkel photo-transect surveys were conducted at different locations surrounding Lizard Island, Australia. For the surveys, a snorkeler or diver swam over the bottom at a depth of 1-2m in the lagoon, One Tree Beach and Research Station areas, and 7m depth in Watson's Bay, while taking photos of the benthos at a set height using a standard digital camera and towing a surface float GPS which was logging its track every five seconds. The camera lens provided a 1.0 m x 1.0 m footprint, at 0.5 m height above the benthos. Horizontal distance between photos was estimated by fin kicks, and corresponded to a surface distance of approximately 2.0 - 4.0 m. Approximation of coordinates of each benthic photo was done based on the photo timestamp and GPS coordinate time stamp, using GPS Photo Link Software (www.geospatialexperts.com). Coordinates of each photo were interpolated by finding the gps coordinates that were logged at a set time before and after the photo was captured. Dominant benthic or substrate cover type was assigned to each photo by placing 24 points random over each image using the Coral Point Count excel program (Kohler and Gill, 2006). Each point was then assigned a dominant cover type using a benthic cover type classification scheme containing nine first-level categories - seagrass high (>=70%), seagrass moderate (40-70%), seagrass low (<= 30%), coral, reef matrix, algae, rubble, rock and sand. Benthic cover composition summaries of each photo were generated automatically in CPCe. The resulting benthic cover data for each photo was linked to GPS coordinates, saved as an ArcMap point shapefile, and projected to Universal Transverse Mercator WGS84 Zone 56 South. The OBIA class assignment followed a hierarchical assignment based on membership rules with levels for "reef", "geomorphic zone" and "benthic community" (above).

2003 Habitat Maps derived from Grey Nurse Shark (GNS) Project of Wolf Rock, Double Island Point, Queensland, Australia

Surveying habitats critical to the survival of grey nurse sharks in South-East Queensland has mapped critical habitats, gathered species inventories and developed protocols for ecological monitoring of critical habitats in southern Queensland. This information has assisted stakeholders with habitat definition and effective management. In 2002 members of UniDive applied successfully for World Wide Fund for Nature, Threatened Species Network funds to map the critical Grey Nurse Shark Habitats in south east Queensland. UniDive members used the funding to survey, from the boats of local dive operators, Wolf Rock at Double Island Point, Gotham, Cherub's Cave, Henderson's Rock and China Wall at North Moreton and Flat Rock at Point Look Out during 2002 and 2003. These sites are situated along the south east Queensland coast and are known to be key Grey Nurse Shark aggregation sites. During the project UniDive members were trained in mapping and survey techniques that include identification of fish, invertebrates and substrate types. Training was conducted by experts from the University of Queensland (Centre of Marine Studies, Biophysical Remote Sensing) and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service who are also UniDive members. The monitoring methods (see methods) are based upon results of the UniDive Coastcare project from 2002, the international established Reef Check program and research conducted by Biophysical Remote Sensing and the Centre of Marine Studies. Habitats were mapped using a combination of towed GPS photo transects, aerial photography, bathymetry surveys and expert knowledge. This data provides georeferenced information regarding the major features of each of Sites mapped including Wolf Rock

The ecology and evolution of invasive Potamopyrgus antipodarum in Australia

The spread of invasive organisms is one of the greatest threats to ecosystems and biodiversity worldwide. Understanding the evolutionary and ecological factors responsible for the transport, introduction, establishment and spread of invasive species will assist the development of control strategies. The New Zealand mudsnail, Potamopyrgus antipodarum (Gray 1843) (Gastropoda: Hydrobiidae), is a global freshwater invader, with populations established in Europe, Asia, the Americas and Australia. While sexual and asexual P. antipodarum coexist in the native range, invasive populations reproduce by parthenogenesis, producing dense populations that compete for resources with native species. Potamopyrgus antipodarum is a natural model system for the study of evolutionary and ecological processes underlying invasion. This thesis assesses the invasion history, genetic diversity and ecology of P. antipodarum in Australia, with particular focus on: a) potential source populations, b) distribution and structure of populations, and c) species traits related to the establishment, persistence and spread of invasive P. antipodarum. Genetic analyses were carried out on specimens collected for this study from New Zealand and Australia, along with existing museum samples. In combination with published data, the analyses revealed low genetic diversity among and within invasive populations in south-eastern Australia, relative to New Zealand populations. Phylogenetic relationships inferred from mitochondrial sequences indicated that the Australian populations belong to clades dominated by parthenogenetic haplotypes that are known to be present in Europe and the US. These ‘invasive clades’ are likely to originate from the North Island of New Zealand, and suggest a role for selection in determining genetic composition of invasive populations. The genotypic diversity of Australian P. antipodarum was low, with few, closely related clones distributed across south-eastern Australia. The pattern of clone distribution was not consistent with any assessed geographical or abiotic factors; instead a few, widely-distributed clones were present in high frequencies at most sites. Differences in clone frequencies were found, which may indicate differential success of clonal lineages. A range of traits have been proposed as facilitators of invasion success, and within-species variation in these traits can promote differential success of genotypes. Using laboratory-based experiments, the performance of the three most common Australian clones was tested across a suite of invasion-relevant traits. Ecologically-relevant variation in traits was found among the clones. These differences may have determined the spatial distribution of clones, and may continue to do so into the future. This thesis found that the P. antipodarum invasion of Australia is the result of few introductions of a small number of globally-invasive genotypes that vary in ecologically-relevant traits. From a source of considerable genetic diversity in the native range, very few genotypes have become invasive. Those that are invasive appear to be very successful at continental scales. These findings highlight a capacity in asexual invaders to successfully invade, and potentially adapt to, a broad range of ecosystems. The P. antipodarum invasion system is amenable to research using combinations of field-based studies, molecular and laboratory approaches, and is likely to yield significant, broadly-applicable insights into invasion.

Influence of Habitat on the Reproductive Ecology of the Amazonian Palm, Mauritia flexuosa, in Roraima, Brazil

Although Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae) plays a pivotal role in the ecology and economy of the Amazon, and occurs in a variety of habitats, little is known about the influence of habitat on the reproductive biology of this palm. My dissertation focuses on the reproductive biology of M. flexuosa in three habitats in Roraima, Brazil: undisturbed forest, undisturbed forest-savanna ecotone, and savanna disturbed by plantations of the exotic tree, Acacia mangium. First, I calculated sex ratios and linked precipitation patterns with phenology. Sex ratios were female-biased. Precipitation was negatively associated with flowering, and positively associated with fruiting. Habitat appears to have no significant influence on phenology of M. flexuosa, although short-term climate variation may affect phenology of this species. Second, I examined floral biology, observed floral visitors, and performed exclusion experiments to determine the pollination system of M. flexuosa. Fruit set did not differ significantly between the visitor exclusion treatment and the control, but was significantly lowest in the wind + visitor exclusion treatment, suggesting that this dioecious palm is anemophilous, independent of habitat. Third, I identified the abiotic and biotic factors explaining variation in fruit mass, seed mass, seed number per fruit, and total fruit yield among habitats. Soil moisture and flooding during the wet season were the best predictors of fruit and seed output. The number of leaves, diameter at breast height, and height were all accurate predictors of reproductive output, but crown volume did not accurately predict fruit yields. Results re-evaluate traditional assumptions about wind-pollination in the tropics, and highlight abiotic and biotic factors responsible for variation in reproductive output of M. flexuosa, with implications for effective management of this palm. Finally, I interviewed harvesters and vendors to document the traditional knowledge and market dynamics of the fruit of M. flexuosa, buriti. Traditional knowledge corroborated results from scientific studies. Vendors argued that the price of buriti must increase, and must fluctuate with varying supply. With appropriate economic incentives to vendors/harvesters, Roraima may expand its market infrastructure for buriti, effectively stimulating the regional economy and practicing sustainable harvesting.