Projecto de receptores integrados de banda larga

O presente trabalho tem como objectivo o estudo e projecto de receptores optimizados para sistemas de comunicações por fibra óptica de muito alto débito (10Gb/s e 40Gb/s), com a capacidade integrada de compensação adaptativa pós-detecção da distorção originada pela característica de dispersão cromática e de polarização do canal óptico. O capítulo 1 detalha o âmbito de aplicabilidade destes receptores em sistemas de comunicações ópticas com multiplexagem no comprimento de onda (WDM) actuais. O capítulo apresenta ainda os objectivos e principais contribuições desta tese. O capítulo 2 detalha o projecto de um amplificador pós-detecção adequado para sistemas de comunicação ópticos com taxa de transmissão de 10Gb/s. São discutidas as topologias mais adequadas para amplificadores pós detecção e apresentados os critérios que ditaram a escolha da topologia de transimpedância bem como as condições que permitem optimizar o seu desempenho em termos de largura de banda, ganho e ruído. Para além disso são abordados aspectos relacionados com a implementação física em tecnologia monolítica de microondas (MMIC), focando em particular o impacto destes no desempenho do circuito, como é o caso do efeito dos componentes extrínsecos ao circuito monolítico, em particular as ligações por fio condutor do monólito ao circuito externo. Este amplificador foi projectado e produzido em tecnologia pHEMT de Arsenieto de Gálio e implementado em tecnologia MMIC. O protótipo produzido foi caracterizado na fábrica, ainda na bolacha em que foi produzido (on-wafer) tendo sido obtidos dados de caracterização de 80 circuitos protótipo. Estes foram comparados com resultados de simulação e com desempenho do protótipo montado num veículo de teste. O capítulo 3 apresenta o projecto de dois compensadores eléctricos ajustáveis com a capacidade de mitigar os efeitos da dispersão cromática e da dispersão de polarização em sistemas ópticos com débito binário de 10Gb/s e 40Gb/s, com modulação em banda lateral dupla e banda lateral única. Duas topologias possíveis para este tipo de compensadores (a topologia Feed-Forward Equalizer e a topologia Decision Feedback Equaliser) são apresentadas e comparadas. A topologia Feed-Forward Equaliser que serviu de base para a implementação dos compensadores apresentados é analisada com mais detalhe sendo propostas alterações que permitem a sua implementação prática. O capítulo apresenta em detalhe a forma como estes compensadores foram implementados como circuitos distribuídos em tecnologia MMIC sendo propostas duas formas de implementar as células de ganho variável: com recurso à configuração cascode ou com recurso à configuração célula de Gilbert. São ainda apresentados resultados de simulação e experimentais (dos protótipos produzidos) que permitem tirar algumas conclusões sobre o desempenho das células de ganho com as duas configurações distintas. Por fim, o capítulo inclui ainda resultados de desempenho dos compensadores testados como compensadores de um sinal eléctrico afectado de distorção. No capítulo 4 é feita uma análise do impacto da modulação em banda lateral dupla (BLD) em comparação com a modulação em banda lateral única (BLU) num sistema óptico afectado de dispersão cromática e de polarização. Mostra-se que com modulação em BLU, como não há batimento entre portadoras das duas bandas laterais em consequência do processo quadrático de detecção e há preservação da informação da distorção cromática do canal (na fase do sinal), o uso deste tipo de modulação em sistemas de comunicação óptica permite maior tolerância à dispersão cromática e os compensadores eléctricos são muito mais eficientes. O capítulo apresenta ainda resultados de teste dos compensadores desenvolvidos em cenários experimentais de laboratório representativos de sistemas ópticos a 10Gb/s e 40Gb/s. Os resultados permitem comparar o desempenho destes cenários sem e com compensação eléctrica optimizada, para os casos de modulação em BLU e em BLD, e considerando ainda os efeitos da dispersão na velocidade de grupo e do atraso de grupo diferencial. Mostra-se que a modulação BLU em conjunto com compensação adaptativa eléctrica permite um desempenho muito superior á modulação em BLD largamente utilizada nos sistemas de comunicações actuais. Por fim o capítulo 5 sintetiza e apresenta as principais conclusões deste trabalho.

Técnicas de monitorização em redes ópticas de próxima geração

In this work several techniques to monitor the performance of optical networks were developed. These techniques are dedicated either to the measurement of the data signal parameters (optical signal to noise ratio and dispersion) or to the detection of physical failures on the network infrastructure. The optical signal to noise ratio of the transmitted signal was successfully monitored using methods based on the presence of Bragg gratings imprinted on high birefringent fibres that allowed the distinction of the signal from the noise due to its polarization properties. The monitoring of the signal group-velocity dispersion was also possible. In this case, a method based on the analysis of the electric spectrum of the signal was applied. It was experimentally demonstrated that this technique is applicable on both amplitude and phase modulated signals. It was also developed a technique to monitor the physical infrastructure of an optical access network. Once again, the application of Bragg gratings (this time imprinted on standard single mode fibres) was the basis of the developed method.

Ultrasonic measurement of the elastic constants of selected nonlinear optical /semiorganic crystals with orthorhombic symmetry

Ultrasonic is a good tool to investigate the elastic properties of crystals. It enables one to determine all the elastic constants, Poisson’s ratios, volume compressibility and bulk modulus of crystals from velocity measurements. It also enables one to demonstrate the anisotropy of elastic properties by plotting sections of the surfaces of phase velocity, slowness, group velocity, Young’s modulus and linear compressibility along the a-b, b-c and a-c planes. They also help one to understand more about phonon amplification and help to interpret various phenomena associated with ultrasonic wave propagation, thermal conductivity, phonon transport etc. Study of nonlinear optical crystals is very important from an application point of view. Hundreds of new NLO materials are synthesized to meet the requirements for various applications. Inorganic, organic and organometallic or semiorganic classes of compounds have been studied for several reasons. Semiorganic compounds have some advantages over their inorganic and inorganic counterparts with regard to their mechanical properties. High damage resistance, high melting point, good transparency and non-hygroscopy are some of the basic requirements for a material to be suitable for device fabrication. New NLO materials are being synthesized and investigation of the mechanical and elastic properties of these crystals is very important to test the suitability of these materials for technological applications

Equatorial waves in the lower stratosphere. II: Annual and interannual variability

The annual and interannual variability of idealized, linear, equatorial waves in the lower stratosphere is investigated using the temperature and velocity fields from the ECMWF 15-year re-analysis dataset. Peak Kelvin wave activity occurs during solstice seasons at 100 hPa, during December-February at 70 hPa and in the easterly to westerly quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) phase transition at 50 hPa. Peak Rossby-gravity wave activity occurs during equinox seasons at 100 hPa, during June-August/September-November at 70 hPa and in the westerly to easterly QBO phase transition at 50 hPa. Although neglect of wind shear means that the results for inertio-gravity waves are likely to be less accurate, they are still qualitatively reasonable and an annual cycle is observed in these waves at 100 hPa and 70 hPa. Inertio-gravity waves with n = 1 are correlated with the QBO at 50 hPa, but the eastward inertio-gravity n = 0 wave is not, due to its very fast vertical group velocity in all background winds. The relative importance of different wave types in driving the QBO at 50 hPa is also discussed. The strongest acceleration appears to be provided by the Kelvin wave while the acceleration provided by the Rossby-gravity wave is negligible. Of the higher-frequency waves, the westward inertio-gravity n = 1 wave appears able to contribute more to the acceleration of the 50 hPa mean zonal wind than the eastward inertio-gravity n = 1 wave.

Baroclinic stationary waves in aquaplanet models

An aquaplanet model is used to study the nature of the highly persistent low-frequency waves that have been observed in models forced by zonally symmetric boundary conditions. Using the Hayashi spectral analysis of the extratropical waves, the authors find that a quasi-stationary wave 5 belongs to a wave packet obeying a well-defined dispersion relation with eastward group velocity. The components of the dispersion relation with k ≥ 5 baroclinically convert eddy available potential energy into eddy kinetic energy, whereas those with k < 5 are baroclinically neutral. In agreement with Green’s model of baroclinic instability, wave 5 is weakly unstable, and the inverse energy cascade, which had been previously proposed as a main forcing for this type of wave, only acts as a positive feedback on its predominantly baroclinic energetics. The quasi-stationary wave is reinforced by a phase lock to an analogous pattern in the tropical convection, which provides further amplification to the wave. It is also found that the Pedlosky bounds on the phase speed of unstable waves provide guidance in explaining the latitudinal structure of the energy conversion, which is shown to be more enhanced where the zonal westerly surface wind is weaker. The wave’s energy is then trapped in the waveguide created by the upper tropospheric jet stream. In agreement with Green’s theory, as the equator-to-pole SST difference is reduced, the stationary marginally stable component shifts toward higher wavenumbers, while wave 5 becomes neutral and westward propagating. Some properties of the aquaplanet quasi-stationary waves are found to be in interesting agreement with a low frequency wave observed by Salby during December–February in the Southern Hemisphere so that this perspective on low frequency variability, apart from its value in terms of basic geophysical fluid dynamics, might be of specific interest for studying the earth’s atmosphere.

Equatorial waves in opposite QBO phases

A methodology for identifying equatorial waves is used to analyze the multilevel 40-yr ECMWF Re-Analysis (ERA-40) data for two different years (1992 and 1993) to investigate the behavior of the equatorial waves under opposite phases of the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO). A comprehensive view of 3D structures and of zonal and vertical propagation of equatorial Kelvin, westward-moving mixed Rossby–gravity (WMRG), and n = 1 Rossby (R1) waves in different QBO phases is presented. Consistent with expectation based on theory, upward-propagating Kelvin waves occur more frequently during the easterly QBO phase than during the westerly QBO phase. However, the westward-moving WMRG and R1 waves show the opposite behavior. The presence of vertically propagating equatorial waves in the stratosphere also depends on the upper tropospheric winds and tropospheric forcing. Typical propagation parameters such as the zonal wavenumber, zonal phase speed, period, vertical wavelength, and vertical group velocity are found. In general, waves in the lower stratosphere have a smaller zonal wavenumber, shorter period, faster phase speed, and shorter vertical wavelength than those in the upper troposphere. All of the waves in the lower stratosphere show an upward group velocity and downward phase speed. When the phase of the QBO is not favorable for waves to propagate, their phase speed in the lower stratosphere is larger and their period is shorter than in the favorable phase, suggesting Doppler shifting by the ambient flow and a filtering of the slow waves. Tropospheric WMRG and R1 waves in the Western Hemisphere also show upward phase speed and downward group velocity, with an indication of their forcing from middle latitudes. Although the waves observed in the lower stratosphere are dominated by “free” waves, there is evidence of some connection with previous tropical convection in the favorable year for the Kelvin waves in the warm water hemisphere and WMRG and R1 waves in the Western Hemisphere, which is suggestive of the importance of convective forcing for the existence of propagating coupled Kelvin waves and midlatitude forcing for the existence of coupled WMRG and R1 waves.

Wave-activity conservation laws and stability theorems for semi-geostrophic dynamics: part 2. pseudoenergy-based theory

This paper represents the second part of a study of semi-geostrophic (SG) geophysical fluid dynamics. SG dynamics shares certain attractive properties with the better known and more widely used quasi-geostrophic (QG) model, but is also a good prototype for balanced models that are more accurate than QG dynamics. The development of such balanced models is an area of great current interest. The goal of the present work is to extend a central body of QG theory, concerning the evolution of disturbances to prescribed basic states, to SG dynamics. Part 1 was based on the pseudomomentum; Part 2 is based on the pseudoenergy. A pseudoenergy invariant is a conserved quantity, of second order in disturbance amplitude relative to a prescribed steady basic state, which is related to the time symmetry of the system. We derive such an invariant for the semi-geostrophic equations, and use it to obtain: (i) a linear stability theorem analogous to Arnol'd's ‘first theorem’; and (ii) a small-amplitude local conservation law for the invariant, obeying the group-velocity property in the WKB limit. The results are analogous to their quasi-geostrophic forms, and reduce to those forms in the limit of small Rossby number. The results are derived for both the f-plane Boussinesq form of semi-geostrophic dynamics, and its extension to β-plane compressible flow by Magnusdottir & Schubert. Novel features particular to semi-geostrophic dynamics include apparently unnoticed lateral boundary stability criteria. Unlike the boundary stability criteria found in the first part of this study, however, these boundary criteria do not necessarily preclude the construction of provably stable basic states. The interior semi-geostrophic dynamics has an underlying Hamiltonian structure, which guarantees that symmetries in the system correspond naturally to the system's invariants. This is an important motivation for the theoretical approach used in this study. The connection between symmetries and conservation laws is made explicit using Noether's theorem applied to the Eulerian form of the Hamiltonian description of the interior dynamics.

Wave-activity conservation laws and stability theorems for semi-geostrophic dynamics: part 1. pseudomomentum-based theory

There exists a well-developed body of theory based on quasi-geostrophic (QG) dynamics that is central to our present understanding of large-scale atmospheric and oceanic dynamics. An important question is the extent to which this body of theory may generalize to more accurate dynamical models. As a first step in this process, we here generalize a set of theoretical results, concerning the evolution of disturbances to prescribed basic states, to semi-geostrophic (SG) dynamics. SG dynamics, like QG dynamics, is a Hamiltonian balanced model whose evolution is described by the material conservation of potential vorticity, together with an invertibility principle relating the potential vorticity to the advecting fields. SG dynamics has features that make it a good prototype for balanced models that are more accurate than QG dynamics. In the first part of this two-part study, we derive a pseudomomentum invariant for the SG equations, and use it to obtain: (i) linear and nonlinear generalized Charney–Stern theorems for disturbances to parallel flows; (ii) a finite-amplitude local conservation law for the invariant, obeying the group-velocity property in the WKB limit; and (iii) a wave-mean-flow interaction theorem consisting of generalized Eliassen–Palm flux diagnostics, an elliptic equation for the stream-function tendency, and a non-acceleration theorem. All these results are analogous to their QG forms. The pseudomomentum invariant – a conserved second-order disturbance quantity that is associated with zonal symmetry – is constructed using a variational principle in a similar manner to the QG calculations. Such an approach is possible when the equations of motion under the geostrophic momentum approximation are transformed to isentropic and geostrophic coordinates, in which the ageostrophic advection terms are no longer explicit. Symmetry-related wave-activity invariants such as the pseudomomentum then arise naturally from the Hamiltonian structure of the SG equations. We avoid use of the so-called ‘massless layer’ approach to the modelling of isentropic gradients at the lower boundary, preferring instead to incorporate explicitly those boundary contributions into the wave-activity and stability results. This makes the analogy with QG dynamics most transparent. This paper treats the f-plane Boussinesq form of SG dynamics, and its recent extension to β-plane, compressible flow by Magnusdottir & Schubert. In the limit of small Rossby number, the results reduce to their respective QG forms. Novel features particular to SG dynamics include apparently unnoticed lateral boundary stability criteria in (i), and the necessity of including additional zonal-mean eddy correlation terms besides the zonal-mean potential vorticity fluxes in the wave-mean-flow balance in (iii). In the companion paper, wave-activity conservation laws and stability theorems based on the SG form of the pseudoenergy are presented.

Nonlinear wave-activity conservation laws and Hamiltonian structure for the two-dimensional anelastic equations

Exact, finite-amplitude, local wave-activity conservation laws are derived for disturbances to steady flows in the context of the two-dimensional anelastic equations. The conservation laws are expressed entirely in terms of Eulerian quantities, and have the property that, in the limit of a small-amplitude, slowly varying, monochromatic wave train, the wave-activity density A and flux F, when averaged over phase, satisfy F = cgA where cg is the group velocity of the waves. For nonparallel steady flows, the only conserved wave activity is a form of disturbance pseudoenergy; when the steady flow is parallel, there is in addition a conservation law for the disturbance pseudomomentum. The above results are obtained not only for isentropic background states (which give the so-called “deep form” of the anelastic equations), but also for arbitrary background potential-temperature profiles θ0(z) so long as the variation in θ0(z) over the depth of the fluid is small compared with θ0 itself. The Hamiltonian structure of the equations is established in both cases, and its symmetry properties discussed. An expression for available potential energy is also derived that, for the case of a stably stratified background state (i.e., dθ0/dz > 0), is locally positive definite; the expression is valid for fully three-dimensional flow. The counterparts to results for the two-dimensional Boussinesq equations are also noted.

An exact local conservation theorem for finite-amplitude disturbances to non-parallel shear flows, with remarks on Hamiltonian structure and on Arnol'd's stability theorems

Disturbances of arbitrary amplitude are superposed on a basic flow which is assumed to be steady and either (a) two-dimensional, homogeneous, and incompressible (rotating or non-rotating) or (b) stably stratified and quasi-geostrophic. Flow over shallow topography is allowed in either case. The basic flow, as well as the disturbance, is assumed to be subject neither to external forcing nor to dissipative processes like viscosity. An exact, local ‘wave-activity conservation theorem’ is derived in which the density A and flux F are second-order ‘wave properties’ or ‘disturbance properties’, meaning that they are O(a2) in magnitude as disturbance amplitude a [rightward arrow] 0, and that they are evaluable correct to O(a2) from linear theory, to O(a3) from second-order theory, and so on to higher orders in a. For a disturbance in the form of a single, slowly varying, non-stationary Rossby wavetrain, $\overline{F}/\overline{A}$ reduces approximately to the Rossby-wave group velocity, where (${}^{-}$) is an appropriate averaging operator. F and A have the formal appearance of Eulerian quantities, but generally involve a multivalued function the correct branch of which requires a certain amount of Lagrangian information for its determination. It is shown that, in a certain sense, the construction of conservable, quasi-Eulerian wave properties like A is unique and that the multivaluedness is inescapable in general. The connection with the concepts of pseudoenergy (quasi-energy), pseudomomentum (quasi-momentum), and ‘Eliassen-Palm wave activity’ is noted. The relationship of this and similar conservation theorems to dynamical fundamentals and to Arnol'd's nonlinear stability theorems is discussed in the light of recent advances in Hamiltonian dynamics. These show where such conservation theorems come from and how to construct them in other cases. An elementary proof of the Hamiltonian structure of two-dimensional Eulerian vortex dynamics is put on record, with explicit attention to the boundary conditions. The connection between Arnol'd's second stability theorem and the suppression of shear and self-tuning resonant instabilities by boundary constraints is discussed, and a finite-amplitude counterpart to Rayleigh's inflection-point theorem noted

The longitudinal variation of equatorial waves due to propagation on a varying zonal flow

The general 1-D theory of waves propagating on a zonally varying flow is developed from basic wave theory, and equations are derived for the variation of wavenumber and energy along ray paths. Different categories of behaviour are found, depending on the sign of the group velocity (cg) and a wave property, B. For B positive the wave energy and the wave number vary in the same sense, with maxima in relative easterlies or westerlies, depending on the sign of cg. Also the wave accumulation of Webster and Chang (1988) occurs where cg goes to zero. However for B negative they behave in opposite senses and wave accumulation does not occur. The zonal propagation of the gravest equatorial waves is analysed in detail using the theory. For non-dispersive Kelvin waves, B reduces to 2, and analytic solution is possible. B is positive for all the waves considered, except for the westward moving mixed Rossby-gravity (WMRG) wave which can have negative as well as positive B. Comparison is made between the observed climatologies of the individual equatorial waves and the result of pure propagation on the climatological upper tropospheric flow. The Kelvin wave distribution is in remarkable agreement, considering the approximations made. Some aspects of the WMRG and Rossby wave distributions are also in qualitative agreement. However the observed maxima in these waves in the winter westerlies in the eastern Pacific and Atlantic are not consistent with the theory. This is consistent with the importance of the sources of equatorial waves in these westerly duct regions due to higher latitude wave activity.

Memory effect and fast spinodal decomposition

We consider the modification of the Cahn-Hilliard equation when a time delay process through a memory function is taken into account. We then study the process of spinodal decomposition in fast phase transitions associated with a conserved order parameter. The introduced memory effect plays an important role to obtain a finite group velocity. Then, we discuss the constraint for the parameters to satisfy causality. The memory effect is seen to affect the dynamics of phase transition at short times and have the effect of delaying, in a significant way, the process of rapid growth of the order parameter that follows a quench into the spinodal region.

Inversão de dados de ondas de superfície Rayleigh

Neste trabalho compilamos informações sobre um grande número de medidas de velocidade de grupo para ondas Rayleigh do modo fundamental, com período até 100 segundos. Tais dados consistiram de informações retiradas da literatura geofísica e cobriram toda a Terra. Parte dos dados foi organizada em trabalhos anteriores e uma segunda parte foi apresentada aqui de forma inédita. Para a América do Sul, selecionamos os principais conjuntos de dados de tais ondas e elaboramos diversos perfis onde a distribuição de velocidade de ondas cisalhantes foi obtida a partir da inversão das curvas de dispersão de velocidade de grupo. Tais perfis serviram para termos uma ideia inicial da estrutura interna da Terra em nosso continente. Com o conjunto global de dados de velocidade de grupo foi possível obtermos os mapas de distribuição lateral de valores de velocidade para cada período referencial entre 20 e 100 segundos. Tais mapas foram produzidos da mesma forma que os mapas de velocidade de fase de ROSA (1986), onde a amostragem for para realizada para blocas medindo 10x10 graus, englobando toda a Terra, em projeção mercator. O valor de velocidade de grupo em cada bloco, para cada período, foi obtido a partir da inversão estocástica dos dados de anomalia de velocidade em relação aos modelos regionalizados de JORDAN (1981) com os valores de velocidade de grupo de ROSA et al. (1992). Os mapas de velocidade de grupo obtidos aqui foram então empregados, na América do Sul, com os valores de velocidade de fase dos mapas obtidos por ROSA (1986). Assim, foi possível determinarmos, em profundidade, os mapas de variação de velocidade de onda cisalhante e os mapas de distribuição de valores de densidade. Com isto, pudemos construir o primeiro mapa de profundidade do Moho (todo do Manto Superior) da América do Sul.

Dispersão das ondas de Rayleigh na Plataforma Sulamericana

Este trabalho representa um estudo de dispersão da componente vertical da onda de superfície de Rayleigh com trajetórias na plataforma Sulamericana. Os registros utilizados são provenientes das estações localizadas no território Brasileiro; sendo a do Rio de Janeiro (RDJ), a de Brasília (BDF), a de Caicó (CAI) e a de Belém (BEB), pois estas são as únicas estações sismológicas no Brasil que têm sensores de período longo e que servem para o estudo de dispersão no intervalo de 4 a 50 segundos, aqui realizados. Os terremotos utilizados estão localizados ao longo da parte leste da cadeia Andina e dentro da plataforma Sulamericana com trajetórias tipicamente continental. Foram selecionados 34 eventos com a utilização dos seguintes critérios práticos: a localização, a magnitude m_b e a profundidade, ocorridos durante o período de Janeiro de 1978 até Junho de 1987. O estudo de dispersão aqui abordado significa a determinação da velocidade de grupo e das amplitudes espectrais correspondentes aos harmônicos fundamental e primeiro superior. Normalmente os harmônicos de ordem segunda ou maior são raramente disponíveis na observação. Dois tipos de medidas foram feitas: (i) velocidade de grupo vs. período e (ii) amplitude vs. período. Os estudos de dispersão são fundamentais para determinação da estrutura da crosta e manto superior que estão diretamente relacionados com os fenômenos geológicos. Neste trabalho, regionalização é definida como a identificação das diferentes formas de curvas de dispersão, que estão relacionadas com as trajetórias epicentro-estação ao longo da plataforma Sulamericana e que venham ter uma correlação geológica como está descrito no item 4.3 deste trabalho. A distribuição dos epicentros se faz desde o extremo sul da Argentina até o extremo norte da Venezuela, objetivando iniciar com este trabalho uma sistemática voltada aos estudos de regionalização da plataforma Sulamericana na nossa instituição. Neste trabalho foram observados três tipos distintos de curvas em 27 trajetórias e agrupadas por famílias 1,2 e 3 respectivamente, onde procurou-se correlacionar suas diferentes formas com a geologia regional da plataforma Sulamericana. A obtenção da curva de dispersão foi feita através da técnica do filtro múltiplo (Dziewonski et al, 1969). Este filtro tem a propriedade de separar os harmônicos através das suas velocidades de grupo para cada frequência selecionada, e também de recuperar as amplitudes características dos harmônicos (Herrmann, 1973). O desenvolvimento teórico do filtro bem como suas limitações e forma de uso são tratados por Dziewonski et al (1972). Como parte do trabalho há a implantação, adaptações e o desenvolvimento de parte do fluxograma do filtro múltiplo, bem como a estruturação da digitalização dos dados para o processamento e interpretação não-automática dos resultados do processamento.

Inspeção de materiais compósitos utilizando ondas acústicas guiadas

Pós-graduação em Engenharia Elétrica - FEIS