Firm Size and Export Intensity: Solving an Empirical Puzzle.

This paper presents a transaction costs analysis of the firm size and export intensity relationship. We submit that relation-specific investments and the costs of safeguarding these investments play a significant role in export relationships. Firm size related differences with respect to these factors are used to explain the different relationships between firm size and export intensity that have been found in previous studies. The theoretical framework is tested empirically, and support is found for different industries.

Selective extracellular vesicle-mediated export of an overlapping set of microRNAs from multiple cell types

Background: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small RNA molecules that regulate expression of specific mRNA targets. They can be released from cells, often encapsulated within extracellular vesicles (EVs), and therefore have the potential to mediate intercellular communication. It has been suggested that certain miRNAs may be selectively exported, although the mechanism has yet to be identified. Manipulation of the miRNA content of EVs will be important for future therapeutic applications. We therefore wished to assess which endogenous miRNAs are enriched in EVs and how effectively an overexpressed miRNA would be exported.

Results: Small RNA libraries from HEK293T cells and vesicles before or after transfection with a vector for miR-146a overexpression were analysed by deep sequencing. A subset of miRNAs was found to be enriched in EVs; pathway analysis of their predicted target genes suggests a potential role in regulation of endocytosis. RT-qPCR in additional cell types and analysis of publicly available data revealed that many of these miRNAs tend to be widely preferentially exported. Whilst overexpressed miR-146a was highly enriched both in transfected cells and their EVs, the cellular:EV ratios of endogenous miRNAs were not grossly altered. MiR-451 was consistently the most highly exported miRNA in many different cell types. Intriguingly, Argonaute2 (Ago2) is required for miR-451 maturation and knock out of Ago2 has been shown to decrease expression of other preferentially exported miRNAs (eg miR-150 and miR-142-3p).

Conclusion: The global expression data provided by deep sequencing confirms that specific miRNAs are enriched in EVs released by HEK293T cells. Observation of similar patterns in a range of cell types suggests that a common mechanism for selective miRNA export may exist.

Aminoarabinose is essential for lipopolysaccharide export and intrinsic antimicrobial peptide resistance in Burkholderia cenocepacia

One common mechanism of resistance against antimicrobial peptides in Gram-negative bacteria is the addition of 4-amino-4-deoxy-l-arabinose (l-Ara4N) to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecule. Burkholderia cenocepacia exhibits extraordinary intrinsic resistance to antimicrobial peptides and other antibiotics. We have previously discovered that unlike other bacteria, B. cenocepacia requires l-Ara4N for viability. Here, we describe the isolation of B. cenocepacia suppressor mutants that remain viable despite the deletion of genes required for l-Ara4N synthesis and transfer to the LPS. The absence of l-Ara4N is the only structural difference in the LPS of the mutants compared with that of the parental strain. The mutants also become highly sensitive to polymyxin B and melittin, two different classes of antimicrobial peptides. The suppressor phenotype resulted from a single amino acid replacement (aspartic acid to histidine) at position 31 of LptG, a protein component of the multi-protein pathway responsible for the export of the LPS molecule from the inner to the outer membrane. We propose that l-Ara4N modification of LPS provides a molecular signature required for LPS export and proper assembly at the outer membrane of B. cenocepacia, and is the most critical determinant for the intrinsic resistance of this bacterium to antimicrobial peptides.

Export of O-specific lipopolysaccharide

The O antigen is the most surface-exposed component of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecule and its biogenesis involves several complex mechanisms not completely well understood. All of these mechanisms involve biochemical reactions that occur on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane as well as several different translocation pathways that deliver the nascent O antigens in a glycolipid form to the periplasmic side of the plasma membrane. This article discusses our current understanding of the mechanisms operating in the biogenesis of the O-specific LPS.

Weighing China’s export basket: The domestic content and technology intensity of Chinese exports

In this paper we use new, detailed, and comprehensive linked firm-transaction data to measure the domestic content and technology intensity of Chinese exports over the period 2000–2007. We evaluate the extent of value-added in China’s exports, using a modification of a method proposed by Hummels et al. (2001) which takes into account the prevalence of processing firms. In addition, we provide new estimates of the skill-and technology-intensity of China’s exports. Our estimates of value-added suggest that the domestic content of China’s exports increased from only 53% to about 60% over the period 2003–2006. Our cross-firm analysis reveals that processing exporters have value-added shares approximately 50% lower than non-processing exporters, even after accounting for ownership, location, and industry. We also show that Chinese exports have become increasingly sophisticated, largely driven by skill and technology improvement within industries.

Export Cartels: Is it Legal to Target your Neighbour? Analysis in Light of Recent Case Law

Despite the growing sophistication of antitrust regimes around the world, export cartels benefit from special treatment: they are almost universally tolerated, if not encouraged in the countries of origin. Economists do not offer an unambiguous policy recommendation on how to deal with them in part due to the lack of empirical data. This article discusses arguments for and against export cartels and it identifies the existing gaps in the present regulatory framework. The theoretical part is followed by an analysis of the recent case law: a US cartel challenged with different outcomes in India and South Africa, as well as Chinese export cartels pursued in the USA. The Chinese cases are particularly topical as the conduct at stake, apart from being subject to private antitrust actions before US courts, was also challenged within the WTO dispute settlement framework, pointing out to the existing interface between trade and competition. While the recent developments prove that unaddressed issues tend not to vanish, the new South-North dimension has the potential of placing export cartels again on the international agenda. Pragmatic thinking suggests looking for the solution within the WTO framework.

Gender implications of UK welfare reform and government equality duties: evidence from qualitative studies

The UK coalition government is bound by equality duties to have regard to the impact of its policies on various groups, including women. This article investigates how far this legislative commitment is influencing debates about current welfare reforms, especially plans for ‘universal credit’ (a new means-tested benefit).
The authors draw on findings from recent studies of within-household distribution from a gender perspective, including in particular their own qualitative research involving separate semi-structured interviews with men and women in 30 low/moderate-income couples in Britain. A major aim of this research was to facilitate more nuanced analysis of the effects of welfare reforms in terms of gender roles and relationships within the household.
This article therefore explores how far these findings, together with key principles for assessing the gender impact of welfare reforms, can be used to assess ‘universal credit’, and to what extent they influenced the UK government’s proposals and analysis.

The 'Ordinariness of the EU's Foreign Policy Power: The Use of WTO Litigation as a Means to Export EU Norms, Values and Interests

The EU has historically been portrayed as a distinctive international actor both in terms of the norms and values it exports in context of its international relations and the manner in which it seeks to influence others. However, such claims to the EU’s distinctiveness are increasingly being questioned. This article joins this chorus of voices arguing the non-distinctiveness of the EU’s foreign policy power by focusing on a specific feature of the EU’s external trade policy, the role of World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement in the EU’s attempts to promote its interests, values and norms.

Remonstrance of the citizens of Beaufort District, S.C. against any further increase of the duties on imports, December 31, 1827

This document contains a remonstrance, which was written by the citizens of Beaufort district of South Carolina, in connection with tariff increases. It was presented to the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States.

Memorial of citizens of Chesterfield, Marlborough, and Darlington, assembled at Cheraw in South Carolina, against a further increase of duties on imported articles, February 4, 1828 : referred to the Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union

This document contains a memorial, which was written by the citizens of Chesterfield, Marlborough, and Darlington, assembled in the town of Cheraw, on July 25, the 25, 1827 in the state of South Carolina who were engaged in agriculture and commerce and presented it to oppose the tariff increase. It was presented to the Congress of the United States.

Back-trajectories Show Export of Airborne Fungal Spores (Ganoderma sp.) From Forests to Agricultural and Urban Areas in England

We propose here the hypothesis that all of United Kingdom (UK) is likely to be affected by Ganoderma sp. spores, an important plant pathogen. We suggest that the main sources of this pathogen, which acts as a bioaerosol, are the widely scattered woodlands in the country, although remote sources must not be neglected. The hypothesis is based on related studies on bioaerosols and supported by new observations from a non-forest site and model calculations to support our hypothesis. Hourly concentrations of Ganoderma sp. spores were measured from 2006 to 2010 using a 7-day volumetric spore trap at the city of Worcester. The concentrations peak during the night and early in the morning. This suggests that the main spore sources are located a few hours away with respect to air masses transport and reach urban areas thanks to air masses transport. The back-trajectory analysis was applied to determine the location of Ganoderma sp. spore sources. The analysis of back-trajectories demonstrated that 78% of the air masses reached Worcester from a 180° arc direction from the East to West. Three episodes were selected for detailed investigation and they revealed that during the episodes air masses always passed main UK woodlands before the arrival in Worcester, independently of their origin, but the long distance transport under certain conditions might be possible. Our studies suggest that the sources of UK Ganoderma sp. spores are mainly to be found in UK. Hence our studies suggest that research and mitigation strategies in UK should give their main attention to national sources, without neglecting the contribution from long distance transport.

Task Competency in the Rights Analytic: Mental Health and the Justification for Rights and Duties

The paper concerns the moral status of persons for the purposes of rights-holding and duty-bearing. Developing from Gewirth’s argument to the Principle of Generic Consistency (PGC) and Beyleveld et al.’s Principle of Precautionary Reasoning, I argue in favour of a capacity-based assessment of the task competencies required for choice-rights and certain duties (within the Hohfeldian analytic). Unlike other, traditional, theories of rights, I claim that precautionary reasoning as to agentic status holds the base justification for rights-holding. If this is the basis for generic legal rights, then the contingent argument must be used to explain communities of rights. Much in the same way as two ‘normal’ adult agents may not have equal rights to be an aeroplane pilot, not all adults hold the same task competencies in relation to the exercise of the generic rights to freedom derived from the PGC. In this paper, I set out to consider the rights held by children, persons suffering from mental illness and generic ‘full’ agents. In mapping the developing ‘portfolio’ of rights and duties that a person carries during their life we might better understand the legal relations of those who do not ostensibly fulfil the criteria of ‘full’ agent.

Linking entrepreneural orientation to export performance: the role of intangible resources and dynamic capabilities

Understanding the determinants of international performance, and in particular, export performance is key for the success of international companies. Research in this area focuses mainly on how resources and capabilities allow companies to gain competitive advantage and superior performance in external markets. Building on the Resource-Based View (RBV) and the Dynamic Capabilities Approach (DCA), this study aims at analysing the effect of intangible resources and capabilities on export performance. Specifically, this study focuses on the proposition that entrepreneurial orientation potentiates the attraction of intangible resources, namely relational and informational resources. Moreover, we propose that these resources impact export performance both directly and indirectly through dynamic capabilities.