萱草属的进化与分类

根据现有记载，萱草属约有20种，主要分布在东亚，由于种间在外部形态和核型上的高度相似性，加之长期人工栽培，使本属植物的分类成为一个难题，我们做了大量的野外调查和温室栽培试验，获得了一些有意义的观察结果，对核型变异做了详细定量分析：系统观察了花粉扫描电镜特征，为了揭示属内可能的表征和分支关系，运用聚类分析，主成分分析及简约分析对属下类群做了定量研究．本文得到如下主要结论． 1．虽然迄今为止许多核型观察结果未能得到有分类学意义的结论，运用数量分析方法比较各分类群核型定量变异结果表明，其分类学意义是明显的，例如，北黄花菜、黄花菜和小黄花菜三者外部形态很一致，核型亦高度相似：大苞萱草和多花萱草的核型公式虽与前三者相同，但已出现明显的数量变异．同样，北萱草，折叶萱草和西南萱草虽有相同核型公式，亦出现明显数量变异．萱草则与所有其他类群的核型均有明显差别．核型对称性分析表明，臂比不对称性出现一个由低到高的演变序列：但长度不对称性与此无明显相关性．萱草和折叶萱草的臂比不对称性最低，西南萱草和北萱草升高，黄花菜，大苞萱草和多花萱草等最高． 2．观察到三种类型花粉;舟形具网纹，舟形具疣纹和亚球形具疣纹．萱草，北萱草，大苞萱草，北黄花菜，黄花菜，小黄花菜及多花萱草具第一种类型花粉;折叶萱草和西南萱草具第2种类型花粉;矮萱草具第三种花粉．以广义百合科其他类群作为复合外类群进行比较，推测花粉形态的演化序列为：舟形具网纹一舟形具疣纹一亚球形具疣纹． 3．在外部形态上，萱草因具二叉分枝花序，叶型苞片，根膨大适中，花蕾顶部绿色及花筒占花被比例较小等原始性状状态，结合不对称性较低的核型特征和舟形具网纹花粉特征，是现存种类中最原始类群;折叶萱草及北萱草等具较短的花筒，二叉分枝花序，单色花被及花蕾部绿色等特征显得进化程度不高．黄花菜因具夜间开花习性，长花筒，叶鞘红色等状态被认为是进化类群，大苞萱草高度压缩的花序形成头状花序，具总苞状宽大苞片及绳索状根被认为是特化类群，矮萱草个体矮小，单花，具亚球形疣纹花粉亦被认为是高度特化类群．外部形态，花粉特征，核型及地理分布之间存在着相关性;随地理水平分布由南向北，外部形态特征由原始到进化，核型不对称性由低到高：随地理垂直分布由低向高，形态特征由复杂到简化，核型不对称性由低到高，花粉形态由舟形具网纹到舟形具疣纹再到亚球形具疣纹，这两种趋势结合起来构画出了本属植物演化和地理分布的基本轮廊． 4．萱草是一个孤立的属，没有明确的外类群可供比较．在现存类群中．Dahlgren等(1985)认为本属与分布在非洲，地中海地区，西亚及中亚的Asphodeloideae（亚科）有较多的共有特征．本文比较了两个类群之后发现，萱草不但在许多一般特征上与Asphodeloideae -致，而且在小孢子同时型发生及含蒽醌等被认为是Asphodeloideae典型属性的特征上亦与后者相同．这些共有特征显示出二 者在系统发育上一定的联系．进一步比较发现两者在有差异的特征中，萱草属显得较为进化．二者的分布区是完全不同的;Asphodeloideae分布在中亚及其以西地区和非洲，而本属分布在东亚，延及西伯利亚，据本文分析，欧洲生长的一个种(H.lilioasphodelus，北黄花菜)是归化类群．北美和台湾没有自然分布，但栽培植物均生长良好，而且已有归化植物．由此似乎可以推测，本届的祖先与Asphodeloideae的祖先有亲缘关系，这种关系似可远溯到第三纪古地中海时期，或许当时与Asphodeloideae祖先有关系的一个分支分布于古地中海东南缘的康滇古陆，即与现今横断山地区相应的地区，由于喜玛拉雅造山运动引起的地质，地理和气候剧变，某些类群灭绝了，一个类群发展成现今的萱草属． 5．由于本属各分类群间形态及核型相似性程度较高，种间极易（人工）杂交，似无必要在属与种间增设组或系，根据本文研究结果及参考有关分类文献（国外种类），我们将萱草属处理为10种2亚种13变种：H.darrowiana Hu;小萱草(H.dumortieri Morr.)及北萱草(var. esculenta (Koidz.) Kitamura;西南萱草(H.forrestii Diels);萱草(H.fulva (L.) L.)及var. aurantiaca (Baker) Hotta, var. disticha (Donn.) Baker，重瓣萱草(var. kwanso Regel)，var. littorea (Makino)Hotta，长菅萱草(var. longituba (Miq.) Maxim，var. maculata Baroni，var. pauciflora Hotta et Matsuoka, var. rosea Stout, var. sempervirens (Araki) Hotta; H. hakuunensis Nakai;北黄花菜 (H. lilioasphodelus L. Var. lilioasphodelus)及黄花菜(ssp. citrina (Baroni) Xiong)，小黄花菜(ssp. minor(Mill.) Xiong)，var. corcana (Nakai) Xiong;大苞萱草 (H. middendorfii Trautv. et Mey var. middendorfii)及var. exaltata (Stout) Kitamura，长苞萱草(var. longibracteata Xiong);多花萱草(H. multiflora Stout);矮萱草(H. nana Smith ct Forrest);折叶萱草(H.plicata Stapf)。

An analysis of records of gillnet fishing in Pilkington Bay, Lake Victoria

Among the commercially valuable species occurring in Lake Victoria the two endemic species of Tilapia, T. esculenta (Graham) and T. variabilis (Boulenger) still provide the basis for the fishery in many areas, though in some places the non-cichlid species are more important, for example in the Kagera river area where large numbers of Labeo victorianus and Schilbe mystus migrate seasonally into the river. Although certain species show these habitat preferences. Most of the coastline of Lake Victoria supports a wide variety of species, all of which contribute to the commercial fishery. Over the past ten years the East African Fisheries Research Organisation has fished experimentally a number of stations within a radius of fifty miles from Jinja. These stations have been selected so as to cover a variety of habitats which range from sheltered bays to exposed coastlines. The records discussed in this paper are the result of fishing operations carried out in Pilkington Bay over the period December 1954 to November 1956. This series of fishing operations was carried out in an attempt to assess the composition of the fish populations contained in this area. To this end a variety of nets of differing mesh sizes were used. Pilkington Bay is about ten square miles in extent and is an irregular and deep indentation on the north coast of Buvuma Island. It lies within the sleeping siclmess area where fishing by Africans is prohibited. When selecting an experimental fishing ground, it is important to have some idea of the amount of commercial fishing being carried out in the area. Throughout the period of this experiment a few African fishermen were seen operating illegally in the area, but it is unlikely that their efforts greatly affected the results obtained. Pilkington Bay was fished by E.A.F.R.O. in 1949 and 1950 (Lowe McConnell 1956) but since then till the present experiment, fishing in the area has been infrequent.

East African Freshwater Fisheries Research Organization Annual Report 1972

Feeding habits of many animals have been used widely in animal classifications. This is so, because the type of diet an organism requires demands structural specialisation which will utilise the available resource. Many animals may however have many structural modifications to enable them to be described as omnivourous or generalised feeders such as H. empodisma and H. riponianus (GREENWOOD 1960) which may show varying degrees of structural and adaptational intermediacy between two trophic groups. Generally, however, the diet of many animals including fish changes as the animal grow larger. The change in structural modifications is usually correlated with changes in the diet. In fishes the change may involve change from tricuspid to biscuspid and finally to unicuspid type of teeth. The degree of modification in the structure depends on the diet, thus Haplochromis that feeds on soft tissues of snails only requires modifications in oral dentition while Haplochromis that feeds on both soft tissues and shells of snails require modification in the lower pharyngeal bone for grinding purposes. Other modifications connected with food utilisation may be located in the alimentary canal. (I) The fish species that are commercially exploited are Protopterus aethiopicus, Clarias mossambicus, Tilapia esculenta, Tilapia amphimelas and Tilapia hybrids. The other fish species present in the lake but not commercially exploited are: Gnathonemus sp. Alestes sp. Labeo sp., Barbus paludinoses, Barbus jacksoni, Barbus lineomaculatus, Barbus regersi, Leptogrlanis sp., Schilbe sp., Haplochromis spp. and Hemihaplochromis sp. (2) Protopterus sp. and Clarias sp. are mostly caught with hooks on long lines. There has been a steady increase in number of hooks on the lake. Since the stocks of Protopterus and C/arias in the lake have a limit, we should control the number of hooks used by each of the fishermen in order to avoid overharvesting. (3) All the previous studies on Lake Kitangiri fisheries suggested the use of gill nets with mesh size greater than 88.9 mm in order to avoid the capture of immature Ti/apia spp. But if the fishermen are to obtain economic gains from the fishery, the optimum mesh size for use is 88.9 -101.6 mm. (4) The gillnet is a passive gear with very beneficial selective characteristics. Unfortunately the drive-in fishery which exists on Lake Kitangiri more or less destroys the gillnet selectivity characteristics. It is therefore recommended that the beating of water with poles be discouraged and stopped. (5) There is need for provision of stable fishing canoes to replace the unstable bottle palm dug-out canoes which are currently being used and which are very risky to operate. (6) The fish processing facilities on Lake Kitangiri are still inadequate. Most of the fish is sun dried, Since sun drying is very difficult during the rainy season, most fishermen carry out intensive fishing during the dry season, Concentrating most of the fishing effort in anyone season instead of spreading evenly this effort over the whole year could damage the age structure of the exploitable stocks. (7) There are considerable fluctuations in the volume of water of the lake. The feasibility of regulating the water loss through the effluent Sibiti river should be investigated by the Water Development Department. (8) Damming the Sibiti river is an expensive undertaking and therefore, the Rural Development Bank of Tanzania should be asked to assess the economic feasibility of such a project.

Formulation, stability and keeping quality of three pelleted feeds used in carp culture

Three dry pelleted feeds incorporating fish meal, fish silage or a mixture of colocasia leaf powder and fish meal were formulated for use in carp culture. The diets formulated were tested for water stability and also for changes in their quality parameters over storage of three months. The different pellets showed satisfactory water stability. The variations recorded in the proximate composition during the period of storage did not bring about any drastic change in the overall keeping quality of the feeds. Therefore, the three formulated feeds are considered suitable for use in the culture of carps.

Fisheries research in Uganda

Evolution of fisheries research and FIRRI The earliest approach to fisheries research in Uganda dates from the first fisheries survey of Lake Victoria by Michael Graham between 1927 and 1928 (Graham, 1929). Based on references to the rich fisheries that were reported to Graham, it appears that during the 18th Century, catch per net per night averaged 300 tilapia, a revelation that led Graham to conclude that Lake Victoria is a tilapia lake. The "tilapia" later came to be known as Tilapia esculenta and T variabilis (Oreochromis esculentus and O. variabilis) respectively.

Some characteristics of the fish fauna of a dam in the Lake Victoria region of Tanzania including the effects of multispecific stocking with tilapia species

Malya dam had been stocked with several species of Tilapia. However all but the species endemic to the region, T esculentus, made only marginal contributions to the fishery. T. zilli particularly had failed to establish itself, probably because its niche had been previously filled by T. rendalii. Planktivorou Tilapia species predominate in Malya dam but in smaller dams in the region herbivoorous tilapia are relatively more abundant. Six non-cichlid species and one of Haplochromis were found in the dam. Tilapia esculenta the most economically important species, was estimated to grow within 9-10 cm first year and 16-18 cm second year. The largest, specimen caught was 30.5 cm and the smallest mature individual 19 cm. The fish of the dam grew more slowly and matured at a smaller size than those of the same species in Lake Victoria The biological pattern of T. esculenta in Malya dam was similar to that of this species in Lake Victoria.

The preservation of some East African freshwater fish

Quality changes during storage were investigated for several commercially important East African freshwater fish. Lates, Bagrus, Protopterus, Tilapia esculenta and T. nilotica were examined during storage in ice and at ambient temperature (250•C). After 24 hours at ambient temperature Lates and Bagrus were completely spoilt but Protopterus was still edible. In iced storage most fish were acceptable for at least 20 days. Organoleptic examination showed that T. nilotica was acceptable after 22 days storage in ice and that gutting was only marginally beneficial. Changes in physical appearance, which could form the basis of a fish inspection system, were recorded during storage. Possible chemical quality control indices were also investigated. It was found that total volatile bases and hypoxanthine are unlikely to be useful quality indices for the species studied with the possible exception of Lates. The bacterial counts of the flesh and skin of T. esculenta and T. niloticus were found to be low (a maximum of 10 organisms per sq cm of skin or per g of flesh) after 22 days storage in ice.

A note on recent advances in the genetic characterization of tilapia stocks in Lake Victoria region

Oreochromis esculenta, the original "ngege" is virtually extinct in Lake Victoria, and is limited to satellite lakes and reservoirs in the greater Lake Victoria region. Oreochromis variabilis can still be found in Lake Victoria and some satellite lakes in the Kyoga System, but in small numbers and only at a few localities (WANDERA and KAUFMAN, unpub. data). Little is known about the influence that species translocations have had on the genetic structure of these crucial fishery species, and even the source of the parent stocks for the introductions remain obscure. Genetic variability was examined within and among allopatric populations of three species in the tilapiine genus Oreochromis: O. esculentus (endemic to Lakes Victoria and Kyoga), and two exotic species introduced to Lake Victoria in the late 1950's to supplement the failing fisheries for native tilapiines, O. niloticus and O. leucostictus.

软甲纲动物和星虫动物线粒体基因组特征及分子进化研究

在过去的几十年间，利用线粒体基因组序列探讨后生动物深层次的系统发育关系已取得初步进展。这主要得益于，线粒体基因组与其它分子标记相比具备诸多优势。迄今为止，超过1,200个后生动物的线粒体基因组已被测定，然而所获得的数据分布极不均衡。 软甲纲历来是甲壳动物分类学和系统发育学研究的重要类群，在形态学特征和分子生物学各方面取得广泛的发展。尽管软甲纲本身作为单系群已得到大多数甲壳动物学家认可，但是软甲纲内部各个类群之间的系统发育关系迄今仍颇有争议。本文报道了凡纳滨对虾Litopenaeus vannamei、中国明对虾Fenneropenaeus chinensis、脊尾白虾Exopalaemon carinicauda、太平洋磷虾Euphausia pacifica和采自南极普里兹湾南极磷虾Euphausia superba的线粒体基因组，其长度分别为15,989 bp、16,004 bp、15,730 bp、16,898 bp和15,498 bp以上（部分非编码区没有测定）。 本研究发现凡纳滨对虾、中国明对虾、脊尾白虾和太平洋磷虾的线粒体基因组包含后生动物线粒体基因组典型的基因组成（13个蛋白质编码基因、22个转运RNA、2个核糖体RNA和一个非编码的AT富含区）；然而，南极磷虾与后生动物线粒体基因组典型的基因组成相比，存在1个trnN基因的重复。与泛甲壳动物线粒体基因组的原始排列相比，凡纳滨对虾和中国明对虾线粒体基因组的基因排列完全一致；脊尾白虾的线粒体基因组发生罕见的trnP和trnH易位，从而说明在真虾下目中线粒体基因组的基因排列并不保守；太平洋磷虾线粒体基因组的基因排列出现3个转运RNA的重排 （trnL1、trnL2和trnW）；南极磷虾线粒体基因组的基因排列除了出现太平洋磷虾具有的这3个转运RNA重排之外，还有1个trnN的重复和1个trnI基因的重排。另外，在太平洋磷虾线粒体基因组最大的非编码区中存在一个154 bp×4.7的串连重复区域，如此大片段的串联重复区域（>150 bp）在软甲纲动物线粒体基因组中是首次报道。 目前所获得的线粒体基因组数据强有力地支持口足目、对虾科、真虾下目和短尾下目为单系群。通过比较基因排列及蛋白质编码基因核苷酸和氨基酸序列的系统发育分析得知真虾类和龙虾类为腹胚亚目的原始类群，并支持“（（Penaeus＋Fenneropenaeus）＋Litopenaeus）＋Marsupenaeus”的系统发育关系。此外，线粒体基因组的数据也强有力地支持磷虾目为单系群。但对于磷虾目在软甲纲中的分类地位及与其它类群的系统发育关系存在一些分歧：基于蛋白质编码基因核苷酸和氨基酸数据的贝叶斯分析强有力地支持磷虾目和十足目近缘，这个结果和传统的分类系统完全一致；然而，基于核苷酸序列的邻接法、氨基酸序列的邻接法和最大似然法均强有力地支持磷虾类和对虾类亲缘关系较近，从而破坏了十足目的单系性，与传统的认识并不一致，但由于自展值的支持率非常高，所以深层次的分析需要进一步加强。 星虫动物属于海洋生物中的一个小门类，自1555年被记载以来，其在后生动物中的分类地位就备受争议。本研究测定了星虫动物门的第一条线粒体基因组：革囊星虫Phascolosoma esculenta的线粒体基因组，全长为15,494 bp，包含13个蛋白质编码基因、22个转运RNA、2个核糖体RNA和1个非编码的AT富含区，所有37个基因在同一条链上编码。与后生动物线粒体基因组的典型组成相比，存在一个trnR基因的缺失和一个trnM基因的重复。比较星虫动物和其它后生动物的线粒体基因组，可以得到以下结论：1）星虫动物和环节动物（包括螠虫动物）的线粒体基因组有相近的基因排列，而且所有基因都在同一链上编码；2）基于蛋白质编码基因的系统发育分析强有力地支持星虫动物和环节动物（包括螠虫动物）组成一个单系群，而将软体动物排除在外。因此，本研究认为以前许多星虫动物和软体动物“共享”的特征，包括发育特征和缺乏分节等，需要重新考虑。

Diversidade de bactérias endofíticas na cultura da mandioca.

A diversidade de bactérias endofíticas na cultura da mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) foi avaliada em plantas coletadas em plantios comerciais no estado de São Paulo e em etnovariedades coletadas em aldeias indígenas e pequenos agricultores nos estados do Amazonas e Bahia. A identificação das bactérias foi realizada pela análise do perfil dos ácidos graxos (FAME). Nos três estados foram identificadas 48 espécies bacterianas pertencentes a 27 gêneros, sendo que os mais freqüentemente isolados foram: Bacillus, Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Serratia e Stenotrophomonas. O gênero Bacillus foi encontrado com maior freqüência em todas as regiões amostradas e o maior número de espécies deste gênero foi encontrado no estado de São Paulo. No estado do Amazonas, à exceção do B. pumilus, e na Bahia, à exceção do B. atrophaeus, todas as espécies de Bacillus encontradas foram pertencentes ao grupo do B. cereus. Nas plantas dos estados do Amazonas e da Bahia foram encontradas espécies bacterianas endofíticas pertencentes aos três grupos bacterianos, ou seja, Proteobacteria, Firmicute e Actinobacteria; o mesmo não foi observado para o estado de São Paulo, onde não foram isoladas bactérias do grupo Actinobacteria. O número de gêneros bacterianos encontrados, associados a 11 diferentes famílias, no estado do Amazonas, demonstra a maior diversidade de bactérias endofíticas nas plantas provenientes deste estado.

Produção de biomassa de mandioca.

A mandioca (Maninhot esculenta Crantz) pode ser destinada ao consumo humano e animal (ruminantes e herbívoros não ruminantes), podendo-se aproveitar as raízes, excelente fonte de energia, as ramas (parte aérea), ricas em proteína, e os subprodutos da industrialização.Considera-se a mandioca como recurso de grande valor para a alimentação nos trópicos, por apresentar características agronômicas específicas que permitem sua exploração não somente em condições de alta tecnologia como também com deficiência de insumos, e também apresentar ampla versatilidade quanto às possibilidades de uso.A parte aérea da mandioca constitui-se em excelente opção para a alimentação de animais, como substituto de parte dos cereais que compõem as rações. Adotando-se um manejo adequado de cultivo, pode-se obter alta produtividade de massa verde. Tal produção pode ser destinada para a alimentação de animais na forma de feno, silagem e ?in natura?, ou como componente protéico e energético na formulação de rações. Um prato típico da região do Recôncavo da Bahia é a maniçoba, feito à base de folha de mandioca, advindo da culinária africana.

Ácaro rajado (tetranychus urticae) em espécies silvestres de mandioca.

Algumas espécies de ácaros encontram-se associadas com a cultura da mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz), com destaque para fitófagos pertencentes à família Tetranychidae. No Brasil, as seguintes espécies de Tetranychidae foram relatadas na cultura: Aponychus Shultzi, Mononychellus bondari, M. mcgregori, M. planki, M. tanajoa, Tetranychus desertorum, T. mexicanus e T. urticae. Dentre estas, merecem destaque o ácaro verde da mandioca, M. tanajoa, e o ácaro-rajado, T. urticae. Tetranychus urticae é da ampla distribuição geográfica e de ocorrência em várias culturas além de mandioca. Em geral as fêmeas apresentam cor esverdeada é encontrado na face inferior das folhas, preferencialmente nas partes medianas e basal da planta. As folhas atacadas apresentam na face superior pontos amarelados ao longo da nervura central se estendendo por toda folha, adquirindo coloração bronzeada; posteriormente secam e caem. Em ataques severos pode ocorrer perda das folhas basais e medianas da planta, avançando até a parte apical.

Recomendação de calagem e adubação para o cultivo da mandioca.

A mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) é cultivada em todas as regiões do Brasil, desempenhando papel importante na alimentação humana e animal, como matéria-prima para vários produtos industriais e na geração de emprego e de renda. O Brasil ocupa a segunda posição na produção mundial de mandioca (12,7% do total), com área cultivada de cerca de 1,7 milhões de hectares, produção da ordem de 22,6 milhões de toneladas de raízes e produtividade média de 13,3 t/ha. Dentre os principais estados produtores destacam-se: Pará (18,0%), Bahia (16,3%), Paraná (12,5%), Rio Grande do Sul (5,0%) e Amazonas (4,3%), que respondem por 56,1% da produção do país. Estima-se que, nas fases de produção primária e no processamento de farinha e fécula, gera-se em torno de um milhão de empregos diretos e que a atividade mandioqueira proporciona receita bruta anual equivalente a 2,5 bilhões de dólares e uma contribuição tributária de 150 milhões de dólares; a produção que é transformada em farinha e fécula gera, respectivamente, receitas equivalentes a 600 milhões e 150 milhões de dólares. A Região Nordeste destaca-se com uma participação de 36,8% da produção nacional; as demais regiões participam com 28,7% (Norte), 19,7% (Sul), 8,8% (Sudeste) e 6,0% (Centro-Oeste).

Armadilha CNPMF: detecção, monitoramento e controle da broca-da-haste da mandioca gênero Sternocoelus.

A mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) é afetada por inúmeras pragas, dentre as quais estão duas espécies de broca-da-haste Sternocoelus spp. (Curculianidae) e Tropidozineus fulveolus (Lameere) (Cerambycidae). Até o momento, o método de controle recomendado era destruir restos de plantas infestadas no campo.

Cultivar BRS Purus: nova alternativa de mandioca para terra firme no Amazonas.

Mandioca cultivar BRS Purus: origem, adaptação, características botânica e agronômica, recomendações técnicas e produtividade, em Manaus-AM.