Efeito da fertilização e da disponibilidade hídrica na produtividade florestal e na eficiência do uso da luz de povoamentos clonais de eucalyptus spp. em Bocaiúva,MG

Pós-graduação em Ciência Florestal - FCA

Termografia digital por infravermelho do escroto e qualidade do sêmen em touros nelore (bos taurus indicus)

Aimed to study the relationship between scrotal temperature on semen quality by use of infrared thermography in Nelore bulls bred extensively. There were scrotal thermography and semen collection. Climatic data were collected by means of globe thermometer. The thermograms of the scrotum were obtained by digital infrared thermography. We carried out ejaculates through electroejaculation for analysis of quantitative and qualitative characteristics. For the data, we used analysis of variance and subsequently applied the Tukey test at 5%. (p <0.05) between animals for sperm vigor, sperm motility between animals and between crops, sperm concentration, total sperm and total viable sperm between groups, between harvests for the scrotum temperatures and climate data. It was concluded that the surface temperatures of the scrotum and climatic factors influence the quality of semen. Thermography is recommended as a complementary test in the evaluation of reproductive bulls.

Error Autocorrelation and Linear Regression for Temperature-Based Evapotranspiration Estimates Improvement

Estimates of evapotranspiration on a local scale is important information for agricultural and hydrological practices. However, equations to estimate potential evapotranspiration based only on temperature data, which are simple to use, are usually less trustworthy than the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)Penman-Monteith standard method. The present work describes two correction procedures for potential evapotranspiration estimates by temperature, making the results more reliable. Initially, the standard FAO-Penman-Monteith method was evaluated with a complete climatologic data set for the period between 2002 and 2006. Then temperature-based estimates by Camargo and Jensen-Haise methods have been adjusted by error autocorrelation evaluated in biweekly and monthly periods. In a second adjustment, simple linear regression was applied. The adjusted equations have been validated with climatic data available for the Year 2001. Both proposed methodologies showed good agreement with the standard method indicating that the methodology can be used for local potential evapotranspiration estimates.

An Innovation System Perspective on Adaptation Strategies to Climate Variability and Water Management in India

Government policies play a critical role in influencing market conditions, institutions and overall agricultural productivity. The thesis therefore looks into the history of agriculture development in India. Taking a political economy perspective, the historical account looks at significant institutional and technological innovations carried out in pre- independent and post independent India. It further focuses on the Green Revolution in Asia, as forty years after; the agricultural community still faces the task of addressing recurrent issue of food security amidst emerging challenges, such as climate change. It examines the Green Revolution that took place in India during the late 1960s and 70s in a historical perspective, identifying two factors of institutional change and political leadership. Climate change in agriculture development has become a major concern to farmers, researchers and policy makers alike. However, there is little knowledge on the farmers’ perception to climate change and to the extent they coincide with actual climatic data. Using a qualitative approach,it looks into the perceptions of the farmers in four villages in the states of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. While exploring the adaptation strategies, the chapter looks into the dynamics of who can afford a particular technology and who cannot and what leads to a particular adaptation decision thus determining the adaptive capacity in water management. The final section looks into the devolution of authority for natural resource management to local user groups through the Water Users’ Associations as an important approach to overcome the long-standing challenges of centralized state bureaucracies in India. It addresses the knowledge gap of why some local user groups are able to overcome governance challenges such as elite capture, while others-that work under the design principles developed by Elinor Ostrom. It draws conclusions on how local leadership, can be promoted to facilitate participatory irrigation management.

Risk analysis of light-frame wood construction due to multiple hazards

Light-frame wood buildings are widely built in the United States (U.S.). Natural hazards cause huge losses to light-frame wood construction. This study proposes methodologies and a framework to evaluate the performance and risk of light-frame wood construction. Performance-based engineering (PBE) aims to ensure that a building achieves the desired performance objectives when subjected to hazard loads. In this study, the collapse risk of a typical one-story light-frame wood building is determined using the Incremental Dynamic Analysis method. The collapse risks of buildings at four sites in the Eastern, Western, and Central regions of U.S. are evaluated. Various sources of uncertainties are considered in the collapse risk assessment so that the influence of uncertainties on the collapse risk of lightframe wood construction is evaluated. The collapse risks of the same building subjected to maximum considered earthquakes at different seismic zones are found to be non-uniform. In certain areas in the U.S., the snow accumulation is significant and causes huge economic losses and threatens life safety. Limited study has been performed to investigate the snow hazard when combined with a seismic hazard. A Filtered Poisson Process (FPP) model is developed in this study, overcoming the shortcomings of the typically used Bernoulli model. The FPP model is validated by comparing the simulation results to weather records obtained from the National Climatic Data Center. The FPP model is applied in the proposed framework to assess the risk of a light-frame wood building subjected to combined snow and earthquake loads. The snow accumulation has a significant influence on the seismic losses of the building. The Bernoulli snow model underestimates the seismic loss of buildings in areas with snow accumulation. An object-oriented framework is proposed in this study to performrisk assessment for lightframe wood construction. For home owners and stake holders, risks in terms of economic losses is much easier to understand than engineering parameters (e.g., inter story drift). The proposed framework is used in two applications. One is to assess the loss of the building subjected to mainshock-aftershock sequences. Aftershock and downtime costs are found to be important factors in the assessment of seismic losses. The framework is also applied to a wood building in the state of Washington to assess the loss of the building subjected to combined earthquake and snow loads. The proposed framework is proven to be an appropriate tool for risk assessment of buildings subjected to multiple hazards. Limitations and future works are also identified.

The past ecology of Abies alba provides new perspectives on future responses of silver fir forests to global warming

Paleoecology can provide valuable insights into the ecology of species that complement observation and experiment-based assessments of climate impact dynamics. New paleoecological records (e.g., pollen, macrofossils) from the Italian Peninsula suggest a much wider climatic niche of the important European tree species Abies alba (silver fir) than observed in its present spatial range. To explore this discrepancy between current and past distribution of the species, we analyzed climatic data (temperature, precipitation, frost, humidity, sunshine) and vegetation-independent paleoclimatic reconstructions (e.g., lake levels, chironomids) and use global coupled carbon-cycle climate (NCAR CSM1.4) and dynamic vegetation (LandClim) modeling. The combined evidence suggests that during the mid-Holocene (6000 years ago), prior to humanization of vegetation, A. alba formed forests under conditions that exceeded the modern (1961-1990) upper temperature limit of the species by 5-7°C (July means). Annual precipitation during this natural period was comparable to today (>700-800 mm), with drier summers and wetter winters. In the meso-Mediterranean to sub-Mediterranean forests A. alba co-occurred with thermophilous taxa such as Quercus ilex, Q. pubescens, Olea europaea, Phillyrea, Arbutus, Cistus, Tilia, Ulmus, Acer, Hedera helix, Ilex aquifolium, Taxus, and Vitis. Results from the last interglacial (ca. 130 000-115 000 BP), when human impact was negligible, corroborate the Holocene evidence. Thermophilous Mediterranean A. alba stands became extinct during the last 5000 years when land-use pressure and specifically excessive anthropogenic fire and browsing disturbance increased. Our results imply that the ecology of this key European tree species is not yet well understood. On the basis of the reconstructed realized climatic niche of the species, we anticipate that the future geographic range of A. alba may not contract regardless of migration success, even if climate should become significantly warmer than today with summer temperatures increasing by up to 5-7°C, as long as precipitation does not fall below 700-800 mm/yr, and anthropogenic disturbance (e.g., fire, browsing) does not become excessive. Our finding contradicts recent studies that projected range contractions under global-warming scenarios, but did not factor how millennia of human impacts reduced the realized climatic niche of A. alba.

Increasing incidence of canine leptospirosis in Switzerland.

A marked increase in canine leptospirosis was observed in Switzerland over 10 years with a peak incidence of 28.1 diagnosed cases/100,000 dogs/year in the most affected canton. With 95% affected dogs living at altitudes <800 m, the disease presented a seasonal pattern associated with temperature (r2 0.73) and rainfall (r2 0.39), >90% cases being diagnosed between May and October. The increasing yearly incidence however was only weakly correlated with climatic data including number of summer (r2 0.25) or rainy days (r2 0.38). Serovars Australis and Bratislava showed the highest seropositivity rates with 70.5% and 69.1%, respectively. Main clinical manifestations included renal (99.6%), pulmonary (76.7%), hepatic (26.0%), and hemorrhagic syndromes (18.2%), leading to a high mortality rate (43.3%). Similar to the human disease, liver involvement had the strongest association with negative outcome (OR 16.3). Based on these data, canine leptospirosis presents similar features and severity as the human infection for which it therefore can be considered a model. Its re-emergence in a temperate country with very high incidence rates in canines should thus be viewed as a warning and emphasize the need for increased awareness in other species.

A 49 year hindcast of surface winds over the Iberian Peninsula

The use of hindcast climatic data is quite extended for multiple applications. However, this approach needs the support of a validation process to allow its drawbacks and, therefore, confidence levels to be assessed. In this work, the strategy relies on an hourly wind database resulting from a dynamical downscaling experiment, with a spatial resolution of 10 km, covering the Iberian Peninsula (IP), driven by the ERA40 reanalysis (1959–2001) extended by European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) analysis (2002–2007) and comprising two main steps. Initially, the skill of the simulation is evaluated comparing the quality-tested observational database (Lorente-Plazas et al., 2014) at local and regional scales. The results show that the model is able to portray the main features of the wind over the IP: annual cycles, wind roses, spatial and temporal variability, as well as the response to different circulation types. In addition, there is a significant added value of the simulation with respect to driving conditions, especially in regions with a complex orography. However, some problems are evident, the major drawback being the systematic overestimation of the wind speed, which is mainly attributed to a missrepresentation of frictional forces. The model skill is also lower along the Mediterranean coast and for the Pyrenees. In a second phase, the high spatio-temporal resolution of the pseudo-real wind database is used to explore the limitations of the observational database. It is shown that missing values do not affect the characterisation of the wind climate over the IP, while the length of the observational period (6 years) is sufficient for most regions, with only a few exceptions. The spatial distribution of the observational sampling schemes should be enhanced to improve the correct assessment of all IP wind regimes, particularly in some mountainous areas.

Health impacts of extreme weather: Flood fatalities in Texas

Floods are the leading cause of fatalities related to natural disasters in Texas. Texas leads the nation in flash flood fatalities. From 1959 through 2009 there were three times more fatalities in Texas (840) than the following state Pennsylvania (265). Texas also leads the nation in flood-related injuries (7753). Flood fatalities in Texas represent a serious public health problem. This study addresses several objectives of Healthy People 2010 including reducing deaths from motor vehicle accidents (Objective 15-15), reducing nonfatal motor vehicle injuries (Objective 15-17), and reducing drownings (Objective 15-29). The study examined flood fatalities that occurred in Texas between 1959 and 2008. Flood fatality statistics were extracted from three sources: flood fatality databases from the National Climatic Data Center, the Spatial Hazard Event and Loss Database for the United States, and the Texas Department of State Health Services. The data collected for flood fatalities include the date, time, gender, age, location, and type of flood. Inconsistencies among the three databases were identified and discussed. Analysis reveals that most fatalities result from driving into flood water (77%). Spatial analysis indicates that more fatalities occurred in counties containing major urban centers – some of the Flash Flood Alley counties (Bexar, Dallas, Travis, and Tarrant), Harris County (Houston), and Val Verde County (Del Rio). An intervention strategy targeting the behavior of driving into flood water is proposed. The intervention is based on the Health Belief model. The main recommendation of the study is that flood fatalities in Texas can be reduced through a combination of improved hydrometeorological forecasting, educational programs aimed at enhancing the public awareness of flood risk and the seriousness of flood warnings, and timely and appropriate action by local emergency and safety authorities.^

Lightness timescale for terrestrial sediments of China

The Nihewan Beds at Yangyuan reflect apparently continuous, high-resolution deposition of fluvial-lacustrine sediment in the climatically important loess deposit regions of north China. The Hutouliang section forms the upper portion of Nihewan Beds deposited during the Brunhes magnetic polarity chron. Lightness values measured on successive samples display similar variability to the aeolian flux record of oceanic sediment core V21-146 located downwind from this area in the North Pacific. The oxygen isotope timescale of core V21-146 was transferred to the lightness curve to provide a preliminary timescale allowing more detailed age control in the Hutouliang section. This timescale will provide useful assistance in dating boundary ages of the loess-soil sequence in China and interpreting regional climatic data.

Chemical composition of volcanic glass of some tephra layers in Northeastern Pacific Ocean

Five widespread upper Cenozoic tephra layers that are found within continental sediments of the western United States have been correlated with tephra layers in marine sediments in the Humboldt and Ventura basins of coastal California by similarities in major-and trace-element abundances; four of these layers have also been identified in deep-ocean sediments at DSDP sites 34, 36, 173, and 470 in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. These layers, erupted from vents in the Yellowstone National Park area of Wyoming and Idaho (Y), the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest (C), and the Long Valley area, California (L), are the Huckleberry Ridge ash bed (2.0 Ma, Y), Rio Dell ash bed (ca. 1.5 Ma, C), Bishop ash bed (0.74 Ma, L), Lava Creek B ash bed (0.62 Ma, Y), and Loleta ash bed (ca. 0.4 Ma, C). The isochronous nature of these beds allows direct comparison of chronologic and climatic data in a variety of depositional environments. For example, the widespread Bishop ash bed is correlated from proximal localities near Bishop in east-central California, where it is interbedded with volcanic and glacial deposits, to lacustrine beds near Tecopa, southeastern California, to deformed on-shore marine strata near Ventura, southwestern California, to deep-ocean sediments at site 470 in the eastern Pacific Ocean west of northern Mexico. The correlations allow us to compare isotopic ages determined for the tephra layers with ages of continental and marine biostratigraphic zones determined by magnetostratigraphy and other numerical age control and also provide iterative checks for available age control. Relative age variations of as much as 0.5 m.y. exist between marine biostratigraphic datums [for example, highest occurrence level of Discoaster brouweri and Calcidiscus tropicus (= C. macintyrei)], as determined from sedimentation rate curves derived from other age control available at each of several sites. These discrepancies may be due to several factors, among which are (1) diachronism of the lowest and highest occurrence levels of marine faunal and floral species with latitude because of ecologic thresholds, (2) upward reworking of older forms in hemipelagic sections adjacent to the tectonically active coast of the western United States and other similar analytical problems in identification of biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic datums, (3) dissolution of microfossils or selective diagenesis of some taxa, (4) lack of precision in isotopic age calibration of these datums, (5) errors in isotopic ages of tephra beds, and (6) large variations in sedimentation rates or hiatuses in stratigraphic sections that result in age errors of interpolated datums. Correlation of tephra layers between on-land marine and deep-ocean deposits indicates that some biostratigraphic datums (diatom and calcareous nannofossil) may be truly time transgressive because at some sites, they are found above and, at other sites, below the same tephra layers.

El régimen de humedad de los suelos de la España peninsular

El objeto de la Tesis es el régimen de humedad de los suelos de la España Peninsular, cuya determinación a partir de datos climáticos se ha realizado de acuerdo con la metodología incluida en la taxonomía norteamericana de suelos (Soil Survey StafF 1975, 1994). Esta metodología presenta algunas indefiniciones, que se pretenden solventar. La investigación ha consistido en la clasificación de los regímenes de humedad del suelo de la España Peninsular y su representación cartográfica. Se han considerado varios métodos de determinación de la evapotranspiración y varios modelos de estimación del régimen de humedad. La clasificación numérica de los regímenes de 467 localidades ha permitido su agrupamiento en clases y su subdivisión natural. El contraste de esta información con la aportada por la cartografía de series de vegetación, mediante un sistema de información geográfica tipo reticular, ha servido para afinar los mapas. El resultado revela que un modelo modificado sirve para subsanar las indefiniciones y posibilita la adaptación de los grupos a las condiciones naturales. SUMMARY The soil moisture regime defined by the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey StafF, 1975, 1994) has been determined by Newhall's simulation model from climatic data. This classification presents some diffículties as gaps and overlaps in the definitions, that we have tried to solve. The soil moisture regimes have been determined by different methods and the results have been classified and mapped. We have compared differents methods of evapotranspiration estimation. A simple modification of Newhall's model matchs better the natural conditions of Spain when comparing with the potential vegatation. A ráster geographical information system has been used to overlay the information layers. As result of the numerical classification of soil moistures regimes of 467 sites, the regimes have been grouped in classes adapted to the natural conditions of Spain. We have compared the results with the potential vegetation map in order to tune the soil moisture regime boundaries. We propose a new soil moisture regimes classification divided in two categories. This classification is adapted to Spanish natural conditions.

Improving simulation of soil water balance using lysimeter observations in a semiarid climate.

Water balance simulation in cropping systems is a very useful tool to study how water can be used efficiently. However this requires that models simulate an accurate water balance. Comparing model results with field observations will provide information on the performance of the models. The objective of this study was to test the performance of DSSAT model in simulating the water balance by comparing the simulations with observed measurements. The soil water balance in DSSAT uses a one dimensional ?tipping bucket? soil water balance approach where available soil water is determined by the drained upper limit (DUL), lower limit (LL) and saturated water content (SAT). A continuous weighing lysimeter was used to get the observed values of drainage and evapotranspiration (ET). An automated agrometeorological weather station close to the lisymeter was also used to record the climatic data. The model simulated accurately the soil water content after the optimization of the soil parameters. However it was found the inability of the model to capture small changes in daily drainage and ET. For that reason simulated cumulative values had larger errors as the time passed by. These results suggested the need to compare outputs of DSSAT and some hydrological model that simulates soil water movement with a more mechanistic approach. The comparison of the two models will allow us to find which mechanism can be modified or incorporated in DSSAT model to improve the simulations.

Water use efficiency and water productivity in the Spanish irrigation district ¿Río Adaja?

A study of the assessment of the irrigation water use has been carried out in the Spanish irrigation District “Río Adaja” that has analyzed the water use efficiency and the water productivity indicators for the main crops for three years: 2010-2011, 2011-2012 and 2012-2013. A soil water balance model was applied taking into ccount climatic data for the nearby weather station and soil properties. Crop water requirements were calculated by the FAO Penman- Monteith with the application of the dual crop coefficient and by considering the readily vailable soil water content (RAW) concept. Likewise, productivity was measured by the indexes: annual relative irrigation supply (ARIS), annual relative water supply (ARWS), relative rainfall supply (RRS), the water productivity (WP), the evapotranspiration water productivity (ETWP), and the irrigation water productivity (IWP. The results show that in most crops deficit irrigation was applied (ARIS<1) in the first two years however, the IWP improved. This was higher in 2010-2011 which corresponded to the highest effective precipitation Pe. In general, the IWP (€.m-3) varied amongcrops but crops such as: onion (4.14, 1.98 and 2.77 respectively for the three years), potato (2.79, 1.69 and 1.62 respectively for the three years), carrot (1.37, 1.70 and 1.80 respectively for the three years) and barley (1.21, 1.16 and 0.68 respectively for the three years) showed the higher values. Thus, it is highlighted the y could be included into the cropping pattern which would maximize the famer’s gross income in the irrigation district.

Factores anatómicos, dendrométricos y climáticos implicados en la producción de resina de Pinus pinaster AIT. : aplicación a la mejora de los métodos de resinación

Pinus pinaster Ait. es la conífera con mayor área de distribución en la Península Ibérica y es, a día de hoy, la única especie resinada en nuestro país. La inducción del flujo de resina al exterior para su recolección a través de distintos tipos de heridas ha sido practicada desde hace miles de años por distintas culturas. En todos los casos, las técnicas desarrolladas se basan en la estimulación del característico sistema de defensa de las pináceas. En los últimos siete años se viene observando una tendencia de incremento sustancial de la superficie resinada en España, acompañada por avances tecnológicos dirigidos a la mecanización y mejora de estimulantes. El aprovechamiento resinero se perfila como un sector estratégico en la generación de empleo rural y la conservación de ecosistemas. La industria resinera demanda métodos de extracción más eficaces, una selvicultura adecuada y actualizada, y condiciones laborales de los resineros más dignas con objeto de llegar a ser competitiva en el mercado internacional. Este trabajo se centra en ampliar el conocimiento sobre el sistema de defensa de P. pinaster, concretamente sobre las estructuras y procesos que pueden afectar a la producción de resina. Se analizan las relaciones entre las características anatómicas del xilema, destacando las relacionadas con los canales resiníferos, las variables dendrométricas y dasométricas de la masa y el flujo de resina (objetivo 1). Se estudia cómo estas relaciones son moduladas por las heridas de resinación dependiendo de la técnica de resinación aplicada (objetivo 2), el clima y el balance hídrico del suelo (objetivo 3). El material vegetal, las muestras de suelo y los datos de producción de resina y climáticos usados en esta tesis han sido recogidos en tres montes de utilidad pública; MUP 101 en Armuña, MUP 108 en Melque de Cercos y MUP 117 en Nieva (en esta última solo se recogieron los datos de producciones), todos ellos pinares monoespecíficos de P. pinaster localizados en la denominada Tierra de Pinares Segoviana. En los árboles de nuestro estudio se han aplicado cuatro métodos de resinación: método de pica de corteza con estimulante y método mecanizado con estimulante, ambos en sentido ascendente y descendente. En los trabajos realizados para el análisis de la influencia de la anatomía constitutiva en la producción de resina (objetivo 1) y el efecto del clima (objetivo 3), se obtuvieron muestras del xilema de 26 árboles resinados en Melque de Cercos y Armuña y 12 árboles control sin resinar. Para caracterizar los pies estudiados, se midió la altura, diámetro normal y porcentaje de copa viva. Las muestras de tejido fueron recogidas en una zona del tronco a una distancia del límite de la herida considerada en la bibliografía como no afectada (anatomía constitutiva). Para el análisis de las alteraciones anatómicas inducidas por la herida (objetivo 2), se recogieron muestras en ocho de los individuos en los que se habían realizado los distintos métodos de resinación descritos y en cinco árboles control. Se obtuvieron ocho muestras de tejido distribuidas en la parte superior, inferior, lateral y centro de la herida de cada uno de los árboles resinados. Para establecer las diferencias en la producción de resina según el método de resinación, se analizaron las producciones de 561 árboles resinados en 2012 con estos cuatro métodos en Nieva. Los principales resultados de estos trabajos muestran que la producción de resina está ligada al volumen de canales (axiales y radiales) y a la frecuencia de canales radiales existentes en el árbol antes de efectuar ninguna herida (sistema constitutivo). De esta manera, los árboles grandes productores de resina mostraron una red de canales más densa que aquellos con producciones medias. Una vez realizada la herida de resinación, observamos una disminución del ancho del anillo de crecimiento y del tamaño medio de los canales axiales a la vez que se incrementaba la frecuencia y área ocupada por mm2 de anillo de estos canales. Estos cambios perduraron en el árbol durante al menos tres años y fueron distintos dependiendo de la localización en el entorno de la herida y del método de resinación. Las respuestas más intensas a la herida se observaron el año siguiente a la realización de la misma, en dirección axial, para las distancias más próximas al límite de la herida y para los métodos de resinación en sentido ascendente. Además, se ha constatado que como consecuencia de las heridas de resinación se produjeron cambios en la anatomía del xilema en zonas alejadas de la herida, tanto en el año de la herida como años posteriores. Es decir, se observó una respuesta sistémica del árbol. Respecto al papel del clima como regulador de la respuesta del árbol, se ha evidenciado que la temperatura, la radiación y la ETP influyeron en la producción de resina, no solo durante la campaña de resinación, sino también durante los meses anteriores. El déficit hídrico favoreció la producción y la formación de canales axiales pero, a partir de un determinado umbral, esa relación se invirtió y las lluvias estivales incrementaron la producción. Algunas de estas variables climáticas se asociaron a cambios en el tamaño y frecuencia de las estructuras secretoras, las cuales posiblemente modulan la respuesta defensiva de la planta. La dendrometría del árbol (evaluada a través del diámetro normal, altura y porcentaje de copa viva), la densidad de la masa y el tipo de suelo influyeron en el potencial de producción de resina de P. pinaster. Árboles más vigorosos, parcelas con menores densidades y suelos con más capacidad para la retención de agua y nutrientes presentaron producciones mayores. Estos trabajos se complementan en anexos con una caracterización del sistema socio-ecológico del pinar en resinación. En ese trabajo se identifican sus potenciales servicios ecosistémicos y se evalúa su grado de vinculación con el aprovechamiento resinero con objeto de valorar su funcionalidad y aproximar una valoración económica de modo que sea posible apreciar la importancia económica de los mismos. Para concluir, podemos resaltar que son necesarios más trabajos de carácter científico para avanzar en la comprensión de los procesos anatómicos y fisiológicos que regulan la secreción de resina en P. pinaster y sus interacciones con el medio. Esto permitiría avances certeros hacia el desarrollo de métodos de extracción más eficaces, una selvicultura óptima, el reconocimiento de los beneficios socio-ecológicos y económicos del aprovechamiento y, de manera general, una bibliografía amplia y fiable para la consulta y desarrollo de futuras mejoras que posibiliten la reactivación y conservación de la resinación como aprovechamiento rentable. ABSTRACT Pinus pinaster Ait. is the most widespread conifer in Spain and is now the only species tapped for its oleoresin. External induction of resin secretion, based on the defense system of Pinus trees, has been performed by humans since Classical times through various methods. The socio-economic implication of this practice in Spain justifies a new approach to improve tapping methodology and understand the effects of this activity on the tree. In the last five years, sharp increases in the price of natural resins, accompanied by technological advances directed toward mechanization, have made resin tapping a strategic activity for rural development and forest conservation. The resin industry demands more efficient tapping methods and forest management plans as a way to increase competitiveness in a global market. In this way, this work focuses on the study of the defense system of P. pinaster, with the aim to understand the effects of anatomical and physiological characteristics and environmental conditions on resin yield. The relationships between anatomical variables -with special focus on resin canals-, dendrometric and dasometric variables, and resin yield will be evaluated (objective 1). The tapping wound effects (objective 2) and the intra- and inter-annual variability of climate conditions and soil water availability influence (objective 3) on resin yield will be also studied. The plant and soil material and the resin yield and climatic data used in this thesis have been collected in stands of three public forests of P. pinaster; Armuña, Melque de Cercos and Nieva, located in Segovia (Central Spain). Trees were tapped using two different methods: mechanized or traditional tool, in both upwards and downwards direction. Twenty-six tapped trees of contrasting resin yield classes and twelve non-tapped (control) trees, growing in two locations (Armuña y Melque de Cercos) with the same climate but different stand density and soil characteristics, were selected for studying the role of tree size, xylem anatomy at distal parts aside from the tapping wound (objective 1) and climate influence (objective 3) on resin yield. Concerning the tree defenses induced by the tapping wound (objective 2), the xylem of eight trees, tapped with the two described methods in both upwards and downwards direction, were analyzed. From each tapped tree, eight cores were collected at different locations and varying distances from the tapping wound. In each core, a histological analysis was made. Growth ring width, earlywood and latewood width, and axial canal frequency, area, mean size and location were measured. The effect of the tapping method on resin yield was assessed in 561 P. pinaster tapped trees in a stand in Nieva. In tissues not affected by the tapping wound, the frequency of radial resin canals and the total volume of resin canals were related to resin yield. The frequency of radial canals and the resin yield were strongly related to tree diameter and percentage of live crown. High area of axial resin canals per mm2 was related to high yielding trees, but only in the location with higher plant density and poorer soil quality. In tapped trees, an increase in axial canal frequency and area was found during the three years following the start of tapping activity, suggesting that canal formation is a systemic induced response to wounding. The highest mean annual resin yield was found using the traditional tool in upwards direction, which also induced the highest increase in axial canal frequency and area. The lowest yield was found for mechanized tapping, which showed no differences between the upwards and downwards directions. The strongest induction of systemic induced responses in terms of resin canal frequency and area was detected one year after tapping for upwards tapping. This suggests the involvement of signaling processes that spread mainly upwards, and the importance of adaptive processes as a defense against periodic insect attacks. Intra-annual variation in resin yield was strongly correlated with temperature, solar radiation, potential evapotranspiration and soil water deficit. Inter-annual variation in resin yield and resin canal abundance were correlated with temperature and water deficit in spring, but above a certain threshold of cumulated water deficit in summer rainfall favored resin yield. Under adverse climate scenarios where resource optimization is desirable, a reduced tapping season during the warmest months (June–September) would be advisable, assuming a very small production loss relative to traditional tapping season. Similarly, in years with a rainy summer and/or dry spring, a slightly longer tapping season could be suggested, as resin yield increases after these events. Tree diameter and percentage of live crown, and radial resin canal frequency could be useful criteria for estimating resin yields in P. pinaster. Vigorous trees in lower density stands and growing up in good quality soils will be the most productive. These conclusions could be applied to improve tapping management and breeding programs. These works are complemented with socio-ecological characterization, the identification of the main ecosystem services and an assessment of the possible economic impact derived from the tapping practice. To conclude, more scientific studies are necessary for understanding the anatomical and physiological processes behind resin synthesis and their interactions with the environment. This would afford further progresses towards an extensive and reliable bibliography and improved tapping methods and optimal selvicultural guide lines.