“Studies on glucose tolerant β-glucosidases from a novel Byssochlamys fulva and their applications in biomass to ethanol conversion”

Beta-glucosidases are critical enzymes in biomass hydrolysis process and is important in creating highly efficient enzyme cocktails for the bio-ethanol industry. Among the two strategies proposed for overcoming the glucose inhibition of commercial cellulases, one is to use heavy dose of BGL in the enzyme blends and the second is to do simultaneous saccharification and fermentation where glucose is converted to alcohol as soon as it is being generated. While the former needs extremely high quantities of enzyme, the latter is inefficient since the conditions for hydrolysis and fermentation are different. This makes the process technically challenging and also in this case, the alcohol generation is lesser, making its recovery difficult. A third option is to use glucose tolerant β-glucosidases which can work at elevated glucose concentrations. However, there are very few reports on such enzymes from microbial sources especially filamentous fungi which can be cultivated on cheap biomass as raw material. There has been very less number of studies directed at this, though there is every possibility that filamentous fungi that are efficient degraders of biomass may harbor such enzymes. The study therefore aimed at isolating a fungus capable of secreting glucose tolerant β- glucosidase enzyme. Production, characterization of β-glucosidases and application of BGL for bioethanol production were attempted.

Extracellular β-glucosidase Production by a Marine Aspergillus sydowii BTMFS 55 under Solid State Fermentation Using Statistical Experimental Design

A potential fungal strain producing extracellular β-glucosidase enzyme was isolated from sea water and identified as ^ëéÉêJ Öáääìë=ëóÇçïáá BTMFS 55 by a molecular approach based on 28S rDNA sequence homology which showed 93% identity with already reported sequences of ^ëéÉêÖáääìë=ëóÇçïáá in the GenBank. A sequential optimization strategy was used to enhance the production of β-glucosidase under solid state fermentation (SSF) with wheat bran (WB) as the growth medium. The two-level Plackett-Burman (PB) design was implemented to screen medium components that influence β-glucosidase production and among the 11 variables, moisture content, inoculums, and peptone were identified as the most significant factors for β-glucosidase production. The enzyme was purified by (NH4)2SO4 precipitation followed by ion exchange chromatography on DEAE sepharose. The enzyme was a monomeric protein with a molecular weight of ~95 kDa as determined by SDS-PAGE. It was optimally active at pH 5.0 and 50°C. It showed high affinity towards éNPG and enzyme has a hã and sã~ñ of 0.67 mM and 83.3 U/mL, respectively. The enzyme was tolerant to glucose inhibition with a há of 17 mM. Low concentration of alcohols (10%), especially ethanol, could activate the enzyme. A considerable level of ethanol could produce from wheat bran and rice straw after 48 and 24 h, respectively, with the help of p~ÅÅÜ~êçãóÅÉë=ÅÉêÉîáëá~É in presence of cellulase and the purified β-glucosidase of ^ëéÉêÖáääìë=ëóÇçïáá BTMFS 55.

Biopulping of Paddy Straw by Pleurotus eous

Biopulping being less energy intensive, inexpensive and causing lesser pollution, can be a viable alternative to chemical and mechanical pulping in paper and pulp industry. In view of shrinking forest reserves, agricultural residues are considered as an alternative raw material for making paper and board. By suitable treatment agriwaste can be converted into substrate for mushroom cultivation. Mushrooms of Pleurotus sp. can preferentially remove lignin from agriwaste with limited degradation to cellulose. The present study examines utilization of Pleurotus eous for biopulping of paddy straw by solid substrate fermentation. SMS, the mushroom growing medium that results from cultivation process, is a good source of fibre and can be pulped easily. Ligninases present in SMS were able to reduce lignin content to nearly half the initial amount by 21st day of cultivation. Highest cellulose content (% dry weight) was observed on 21st day, while cellulase production commenced from 28th day of cultivation. SEM images revealed that SMS fibres are still associated with non-cellulosic materials when compared to chemically (20% w/v NaOH) extracted fibres.

Ethanol Production From Spent Substrate Of Pleurotus Eous

Spent substrate, the residual material of mushroom cultivation, causes disposal problems for cultivators. Currently the spent substrate of different mushrooms is used mainly for composting. Edible mushrooms of Pleurotus sp. can grow on a wide range of lignocellulosic substrates. In the present study, Pleurotus eous was grown on paddy straw and the spent substrate was used for the production of ethanol. Lignocellulosic biomass cannot be saccharified by enzymes to high yield of ethanol without pretreatment. The root cause for the recalcitrance of lignocellulosic biomass such as paddy straw is the presence of lignin and hemicelluloses on the surface of cellulose. They form a barrier and prevent cellulase from accessing the cellulose in the substrate. In the untreated paddy straw, the amount of hemicelluloses and lignin (in % dry weight) were 20.30 and 20.34 respectively and the total reducing sugar was estimated to be 5.40 mg/g. Extracellular xylanase and ligninases of P. eous could reduce the amount of hemicelluloses and lignin to 16 and 11(% dry weight) respectively, by 21st day of cultivation. Growth of mushroom brought a seven fold increase in the total reducing sugar yield (39.20 mg/g) and six fold increase in the production of ethanol (6.48 g/L) after 48hrs of fermentation, when compared to untreated paddy straw

Salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil

Five laboratory incubation experiments were carried out to assess the salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil. The first laboratory experiment was carried out to prove the hypothesis that the lower content of fungal biomass in a saline soil reduces the decomposition of a complex organic substrate in comparison to a non-saline soil under acidic conditions. Three different rates (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%) of sugarcane filter cake were added to both soils and incubated for 63 days at 30°C. In the saline control soil without amendment, cumulative CO2 production was 70% greater than in the corresponding non-saline control soil, but the formation of inorganic N did not differ between these two soils. However, nitrification was inhibited in the saline soil. The increase in cumulative CO2 production by adding filter cake was similar in both soils, corresponding to 29% of the filter cake C at all three addition rates. Also the increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N were linearly related to the amount of filter cake added, but this increase was slightly higher for both properties in the saline soil. In contrast to microbial biomass, the absolute increase in ergosterol content in the saline soil was on average only half that in the non-saline soil and it showed also strong temporal changes during the incubation: A strong initial increase after adding the filter cake was followed by a rapid decline. The addition of filter cake led to immobilisation of inorganic N in both soils. This immobilisation was not expected, because the total C-to-total N ratio of the filter cake was below 13 and the organic C-to-organic N ratio in the 0.5 M K2SO4 extract of this material was even lower at 9.2. The immobilisation was considerably higher in the saline soil than in the non-saline soil. The N immobilisation capacity of sugarcane filter cake should be considered when this material is applied to arable sites at high rations. The second incubation experiment was carried out to examine the N immobilizing effect of sugarcane filter cake (C/N ratio of 12.4) and to investigate whether mixing it with compost (C/N ratio of 10.5) has any synergistic effects on C and N mineralization after incorporation into the soil. Approximately 19% of the compost C added and 37% of the filter cake C were evolved as CO2, assuming that the amendments had no effects on the decomposition of soil organic C. However, only 28% of the added filter cake was lost according to the total C and d13C values. Filter cake and compost contained initially significant concentrations of inorganic N, which was nearly completely immobilized between day 7 and 14 of the incubation in most cases. After day 14, N re-mineralization occurred at an average rate of 0.73 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in most amendment treatments, paralleling the N mineralization rate of the non-amended control without significant difference. No significant net N mineralization from the amendment N occurred in any of the amendment treatments in comparison to the control. The addition of compost and filter cake resulted in a linear increase in microbial biomass C with increasing amounts of C added. This increase was not affected by differences in substrate quality, especially the three times larger content of K2SO4 extractable organic C in the sugarcane filter cake. In most amendment treatments, microbial biomass C and biomass N increased until the end of the incubation. No synergistic effects could be observed in the mixture treatments of compost and sugarcane filter cake. The third 42-day incubation experiment was conducted to answer the questions whether the decomposition of sugarcane filter cake also result in immobilization of nitrogen in a saline alkaline soil and whether the mixing of sugarcane filter cake with glucose (adjusted to a C/N ratio of 12.5 with (NH4)2SO4) change its decomposition. The relative percentage CO2 evolved increased from 35% of the added C in the pure 0.5% filter cake treatment to 41% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.25% glucose treatment to 48% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.5% glucose treatment. The three different amendment treatments led to immediate increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N within 6 h that persisted only in the pure filter cake treatment until the end of the incubation. The fungal cell-membrane component ergosterol showed initially an over-proportionate increase in relation to microbial biomass C that fully disappeared at the end of the incubation. The cellulase activity showed a 5-fold increase after filter cake addition, which was not further increased by the additional glucose amendment. The cellulase activity showed an exponential decline to values around 4% of the initial value in all treatments. The amount of inorganic N immobilized from day 0 to day 14 increased with increasing amount of C added in comparison to the control treatment. Since day 14, the immobilized N was re-mineralized at rates between 1.31 and 1.51 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in the amendment treatments and was thus more than doubled in comparison with the control treatment. This means that the re-mineralization rate is independent from the actual size of the microbial residues pool and also independent from the size of the soil microbial biomass. Other unknown soil properties seem to form a soil-specific gate for the release of inorganic N. The fourth incubation experiment was carried out with the objective of assessing the effects of salt additions containing different anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-) on the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake and dhancha leaves amended to inoculated sterile quartz sand. In the subsequent fifth experiment, the objective was to assess the effects of inoculum and temperature on the decomposition of sugar cane filter cake. In the fourth experiment, sugarcane filter cake led to significantly lower respiration rates, lower contents of extractable C and N, and lower contents of microbial biomass C and N than dhancha leaves, but to a higher respiratory quotient RQ and to a higher content of the fungal biomarker ergosterol. The RQ was significantly increased after salt addition, when comparing the average of all salinity treatments with the control. Differences in anion composition had no clear effects on the RQ values. In experiment 2, the rise in temperature from 20 to 40°C increased the CO2 production rate by a factor of 1.6, the O2 consumption rate by a factor of 1.9 and the ergosterol content by 60%. In contrast, the contents of microbial biomass N decreased by 60% and the RQ by 13%. The effects of the inoculation with a saline soil were in most cases negative and did not indicate a better adaptation of these organisms to salinity. The general effects of anion composition on microbial biomass and activity indices were small and inconsistent. Only the fraction of 0.5 M K2SO4 extractable C and N in non-fumigated soil was consistently increased in the 1.2 M NaHCO3 treatment of both experiments. In contrast to the small salinity effects, the quality of the substrate has overwhelming effects on microbial biomass and activity indices, especially on the fungal part of the microbial community.

Mikrobielle Nutzung von Ernteresten in Bodensäulen und Litterbags

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte die Einflüsse der Bodenart und Einarbeitungstiefe von Streu auf die mikrobielle Nutzung und ihren Abbau. Anhand einer Kohlenstoffsequestrierung wurde die Verlagerung streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes in die Fraktionen CO2-C, SOC, extrahierbaren Kohlenstoff, Cmik und POM-C betrachtet. Aufgrund der Analyse der δ13C-CO2 Werte der Bodenrespiration, im Rahmen der Sequestrierung des streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes, war der Anteil der streubürtigen Bodenrespiration und somit die gesamte, zu erwartende Bodenrespiration bekannt. Durch die, bei der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, ermittelten Werte konnte eine Plausibilitätsprüfung an vier Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration, auf ihre Genauigkeit und mögliche Artefakte hin, durchgeführt werden. Des Weiteren wurden in einem anschließenden Freilandversuch unter subtropischen Bedingungen die Einflüsse verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte, in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität, auf den Streuabbau und die mikrobielle Besiedelung hin untersucht. Im ersten Versuch (Kapitel 3), wurde anhand eines Säulenversuches der Einfluss der Einarbeitungstiefe, in Anhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf den Streuabbau untersucht. Dieses ist von großer Bedeutung, da auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen Streu und so genannte "Grüne Dünger" durch den Einsatz unterschiedlicher Bodenbearbeitungssysteme, wie z.B. der Kreiselegge oder dem Wendepflug, in unterschiedliche Tiefen eingearbeitet werden. Die Verlagerung streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen, über eine Distanz von bis zu 20 cm wurde innerhalb dieser Arbeit das erste Mal gezeigt. Bisherige Studien zeigten einzig einen Transport von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff per Pilzhyphen, über eine kurze Distanz von der Detritussphäre in den angrenzenden Boden. Der höhere Anteil streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes innerhalb der von der Streuschicht weiter entfernten Schichten im sandigen Boden, im Vergleich zum lehmigen Boden zeigte, dass das feine Porenvolumen des lehmigen Bodens den Transport Streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen grundsätzlich behindert. Diese Annahme wurde durch die stärkere Abnahme des Anteils streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes, mit zunehmender Entfernung zur Streuschicht, im lehmigen Boden im Vergleich zum sandigen Boden unterstützt. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass der sandige Boden zusätzlich durch die höhere Porosität eine erhöhte Sauerstoffdurchlässigkeit und somit, in den tieferen Schichten bessere Wachstumsbedingungen für Mikroorganismen bietet als der lehmige Boden. Durch die Ausbreitung substratbürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes wurde im sandigen Boden mehr streubürtiger Kohlenstoff durch Mikroorganismen inkorporiert als im lehmigen Boden. Ein weiterer Grund für die geringere Verlagerung von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff in die mikrobielle Biomasse des lehmigen Bodens ist wahrscheinlich der bessere physikalische Schutz durch den höheren Tonanteil. Durch die Einarbeitung der Streu stieg in allen Ansätzen der Gehalt an Ergosterol, welcher ein wesentlicher Indikator für die Präsenz saprotropher Pilze ist. Besonders stark ausgeprägt war der Anstieg des Ergosterolgehaltes, sowie des Ergosterol / mikrobielle Biomasse C – Quotienten, wenn Streu in die untere Schicht (15 - 20 cm) ein-gearbeitet wurde. Diese tiefenspezifischen Unterschiede wurden bisher in noch keinem weiteren Versuch beobachtet und können auf die Entwicklung unterschiedlicher pilzlicher Gemeinschaften zurück zu führen sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass pilzliche Nekromasse in den oberen Bodenschichten schneller umgesetzt wird und somit bei der Ergosterolbestimmung nicht mit erfasst wird. Da der Umsatz der pilzlichen Nekromasse im porösen sandigen Boden, aufgrund der höheren Sauerstoffverfügbarkeit und des geringeren physikalischen Schutzes, vermutlich höher ist als im lehmigen Boden, wird diese Annahme durch den im sandigen Boden geringeren Gehalt an mikrobiellen Kohlenstoff unterstützt. Wie erwartet, überstieg die Mineralisation der Streu im sandigen Boden die der im lehmigen Boden. Jedoch anders als erwartet, unterschied sich die Mineralisation in Abhängigkeit der Einarbeitungstiefe, mit einer erhöhten Mineralisation bei Einarbeitung der Streu in 0 - 5 cm Tiefe, einzig im sandigen Boden. Die Berechnung des Ertragskoeffizienten zeigte, dass die Substratsnutzungseffizienz der Mikroorganismen im sandigen Boden signifikant geringer war als die im lehmigen Boden. Die Zugabe von Streu führte in beiden Böden, verstärkt jedoch im lehmigen Boden, zu einem positiven Priming Effekt, der in beiden Bö-den stärker ausgeprägt war, als Streu in 0–5 cm Tiefe eingearbeitet wurde. Trotz Abnahme der SOC-bürtigen mikrobiellen Biomasse stieg die Mineralisation des SOC stark an. Es ist anzunehmen, dass extrazelluläre Enzyme wie Cellulase und Lignin modifizierende Enzy-me, produziert von saprotrophen Pilzen, zum Abbau von Cellolose und Lignin der Streu, zum Teil sehr effizient SOC abbauen. Im zweiten Versuch (Kapitel 4) wurde anhand des gleichen Säulenversuches (Versuch 1; Kapitel 3) der Einfluss der Entfernung von CO2-hot-spots im Boden zur Bodenoberfläche, in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf vier verschiedene Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration betrachtet. Zusätzlich wurde durch eine Plausibilitätsprüfung anhand der Kohlenstoffbilanz, basierend auf der in Versuch 1 durchgeführten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, die Genauigkeit der vier Methoden in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart überprüft. Für beide Ansätze mit sandigem Boden zeigen IR und PAS eine deutliche Überschätzung der mit NaOH und GC bestimmten Bodenrespiration. Die Überschätzung durch IR ist dabei auf die durch die dynamische Haube verursachten Turbulenzen und deren Auswirkungen auf den porösen sandigen Boden zurück zu führen. Bei geringen Respirationsraten, wie bei der Kontrolle, zeigt die Messung mittels IR trotz Turbulenzen, verursacht durch den Ventilator der Haube, keine Überschätzung. Die Überschätzung durch PAS hingegen kann nicht auf Turbulenzen, verursacht durch die dynamische Haube, zurück geführt werden, da bei den Analysen mit PAS und GC identische Hauben, höher und größer als bei IR, eingesetzt wurden und die Bodenrespiration durch GC nicht überschätzt wurde. Im Gegensatz zu beiden sandigen Ansätzen überschätzt IR die Bodenrespiration im lehmigen Boden nicht. NaOH hingegen unterschätzt die Bodenrespiration, wenn Streu in 15-20 cm Tiefe des lehmigen Bodens eingearbeitet ist. Dieses ist dadurch zu erklären, dass, bedingt durch die geringere Porosität sowie das höhere Wasserhaltevermögen und dem daraus resultierenden geringeren Luft gefüllten Porenvolumen, die Diffusion von CO2 im lehmigen Boden langsamer ist als im sandigen Boden. Nach Absorption des CO2 der Haubenluft diffundiert das CO2 des CO2-hot-spots in 15-20 cm Tiefe, entlang des Diffusionsgradienten, aufgrund des Diffusionswiderstandes in lehmigen Boden langsamer zur Oberfläche als im sandigen Boden oder wenn der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche liegt. Da bei der Messung mit der dynamischen Haube diese nur kurz auf der Fläche verbleibt, beeinflusst der Diffusionsgradient diese Messungen nicht. Hinzukommt, dass bei den Messsystemen, die in Kombination mit der dynamischen Haube eingesetzt werden, im Gegensatz zur Absorption durch Lauge keine CO2 Abreicherung stattfindet und die Diffusion von CO2 aus dem Boden über lange Zeit bis zu hohen CO2 Konzentration in der Haube linear bleibt. Alle drei mit einer dynamischen Haube kombinierten Methoden zeigen mit Korrelations-koeffizienten zwischen 0,90 und 0,93 starke Korrelationen mit NaOH. Während PAS die Bodenrespiration im Verhältnis zu NaOH immer überschätzt, tritt eine Überschätzung durch GC nur bei Mineralisationsraten unter 500 mg m-2 h-1 und für IR bei Mineralisations-raten über 40 mg m-2 h-1 ein. Die Plausibilitätsprüfung zeigt, dass für sandigen Boden, mit NaOH und GC eine sehr exakte Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff erreicht wird, wohingegen IR und PAS in der Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff bei deutlich über 100 % liegen. Für den lehmigen Boden hingegen ist nach Entfernung der CO2-hot-spots zur Bodenoberfläche zu differenzieren. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche ist die Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff für NaOH, GC und IR sehr exakt. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot jedoch in 15-20 cm Tiefe, ist die Wiederfindung des Kohlenstoffes durch NaOH deutlich unter 100 %. Die Wiederfindung durch PAS liegt sowohl für den sandigen als auch für den lehmigen Boden immer deutlich über 100 %. Im dritten Versuch (Kapitel 5), wurde anhand eines Litterbag-Versuches im Norden des Omans, der Einfluss verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte auf den Abbau von Streu auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität betrachtet. Bei dem Großteil bisheriger Streuabbauversuche, unter gemäßigten und subtropischen Klimaten, stand der Abbau von Streu im Wald im Fokus der Betrachtung. Die wenigen Versuche zum Streuabbau auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen beschränken sich auf die gemäßigten Klimate. Wohingegen der Abbau von Streu, sowie der Einfluss von Dünger und Feldfrucht unter subtropischen Bedingungen, zum ersten mal mit der vorliegenden Arbeit fokussiert wurde. Der Verlust an organischem Material war verglichen mit Versuchen un-ter gemäßigten Klimaten, bei allen vier Streuarten, generell hoch. Der höhere Abbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu ist auf Unterschiede der Streuqualität zurückzuführen. Neben der Verwertbarkeit durch Mikroorganismen beeinflusst die Streuqualität zusätzlich die "Schmackhaftigkeit" der Streu für Organismen der Mesofauna. Wodurch ein selektiver Transport und/oder Grazing von Mikroorganismen stattfindet. Der geringere Abbau der Luzernenstreu verglichen mit Maisstreu jedoch ist nicht auf die Streuqualität sondern auf die geringere mikrobielle Besiedelung der Luzernenstreu während der Versuchszeit zurückzuführen. Der Unterschied im Grad der mikrobiellen Besiedelung kann durch die erhobenen Daten nicht erklärt werden. Es ist jedoch davon auszugehen, dass Leguminosen Substanzen wie z.B. Polyphenole enthalten, welche die mikrobielle Biomasse und im Besonderen die pilzliche Biomasse in beachtlichem Umfang inhibitieren. Ebenso wenig ist der höhere Abbau von Weizenstreu verglichen mit Rapsstreu durch die Streuqualität zu begründen. Eine mögliche Erklärung für den geringeren Abbau der Rapsstreu kann ihr hoher Aluminium Gehalt sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass die Rapsstreu organische Substanzen wie Glucosinolate enthält, welche den mikrobiellen Streuabbau inhibitieren. Während der Hemicellulosegehalt am Ende des Versuches nicht durch die Streuqualität beeinflusst war, zeigten Cellulose und Lignin quali-tätsabhängige Effekte. Der stärkere Abbau von Cellulose bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu ist auf den anfänglich höheren Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen, wodurch die Produktion und Aktivität von Cellulose degradierenden Enzymen, wie Exo-Cellulase, Endo-Cellulase und Xylanase, anstieg. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass die Differenzen im Celluloseabbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu, neben Unterschieden im anfänglichen Stickstoffgehalt, auf den höheren Schutz von Cellulose durch Lignin in Raps- und Weizenstreu zurückzuführen sind. Während der initial geringe Stickstoffgehalt den Ligninabbau in Raps- und Weizenstreu unterstützt, ist die relative Anreicherung von Lignin in Luzernen- und Maisstreu hingegen auf den initial hohen Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen. Dem entgegen hat die Zusammensetzung weiterer Nährstoffe einen sehr geringen Effekt. Es ist jedoch möglich, dass stärkere Effekte durch den Eintrag von Boden in die Litterbags durch Organismen der Mesofauna, Wurzelwachstum oder physikalische Verlagerung überdeckt werden. Während unter organische Düngung, die pilzliche Biomasse ansteigt, fördert der leicht verfügbare Stickstoff der mineralischen Düngung die Bildung bakterieller Biomasse. Der höher Gehalt an pilzlicher Biomasse unter organischer Düngung zeigte keinen generellen Effekt auf den Abbau von Kohlenstoff. Er führte jedoch zu einer Veränderung in der Streuzusammensetzung. Die verringerte Abnahme bzw. verstärkte Zunahme der Nährstoffgehalte bei organischer Düngung ist durch den Eintrag dünger-bürtiger Nährstoffe, im Besonderen durch die verstärkte Bildung pilzlicher Hyphen in die Litterbags hinein, zu erklären. Trotz höherer Gehalte an pilzlicher Biomasse war der Ligningehalt am Ende des Versuches unter organischer Düngung höher als unter mineralischer Düngung. Diese ist auf den Eintrag düngerbürtiger Pilze zurückzuführen, welche eine geringere Lignindegradierungseffizienz aufweisen. Der Einfluss der Feldfrucht auf den Streuabbau äußert sich durch höhere Gehalte mikrobieller und im Besonderen pilzlicher Biomasse, und durch geringere Gehalte an N, P, Ca, Na und K in, im Litterbag verbleiben-der Streu, unter dem Anbau von Mohrrüben. Der Anstieg der pilzlichen Biomasse führt, ebenso wie bei der organischen Düngung zu keinem generellen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffdegradation, zeigt jedoch einen selektiven Effekt auf den Abbau von Cellulose. Der Einfluss, sowohl auf die mikrobielle Biomasse, als auch auf den Nährstoffgehalt, zeigt die Bedeutung der Unterschiede im Wurzelwachstum, der Rhizodeposition sowie des Nährstoffbedarfs in Abhängigkeit der Feldfrucht. Trotz großer Unterschiede der Streuarten im anfänglichen Gehalt mikrobieller Biomasse war dieser am Ende des Versuches für alle Streuarten identisch. Dieses war Folge eines starken Anstiegs der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu sowie einer Abnahme der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche zuvor noch nicht beobachtet wurde. Dieses macht den Einfluss der anfänglichen mikrobiellen Biomasse auf deren Entwicklung während des Streuabbauprozesses im Boden deutlich. Es ist anzunehmen, dass ein Teil der anfänglichen pilzlichen Biomasse der Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche sich unter gemäßigten Klimaten entwickelte, unter subtropischen Bedingungen nicht überlebensfähig war. Generell war der Streuabbau durch Pilze dominiert. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass Unterschiede im Pflanzenmaterial einen Einfluss auf die bakterielle Biomasse hatten, Unterschiede in Düngung und Feldfrucht hingegen die pilzliche Biomasse und die bakterielle Biomasse beeinflussten.

Use of fibrolytic enzymes to improve the nutritive value of ruminant diets - A biochemical and in vitro rumen degradation assessment

Two commercial enzyme products, Depol 40 (D) and Liquicell 2500 (L), were characterised from a biochemical standpoint and their potential to improve rumen degradation of forages was evaluated in vitro. Enzyme activities were determined at pH 5.5 and 39 degreesC. Analysis of the enzyme activities indicated that L contained higher xylanase and endoglucanase, but lower exoglucanase, pectinase and alpha-amylase activities than D. The Reading Pressure Technique (RPT) was used to investigate the effect of enzyme addition on the in vitro gas production (GP) and organic matter degradation (OMD) of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) stems and leaves. A completely randomised design with factorial arrangement of treatments was used. Both alfalfa fractions were untreated or treated with each enzyme at four levels, 20 h before incubation with rumen fluid. Each level of enzyme provided similar amounts of filter paper (D1, L1), endoglucanase (D2, L2), alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase (D3, L3) and xylanase units (D4, L4) per gram forage DM. Enzymes increased the initial OMD in both fractions, with improvements of up to 15% in leaves (D4) and 8% in stems (L2) after 12 h incubation. All enzyme treatments increased the extent of degradation (96 h incubation) in the leaf fractions, but only L2 increased final OMD in the stems. Direct hydrolysis of forage fractions during the pre-treatment period did not fully account for the magnitude of the increases in OMD, suggesting that the increase in rate of degradation was achieved through a combined effect of direct enzyme hydrolysis and synergistic action between the exogenous (applied) and endogenous (rumen) enzymes. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro evaluation of fibrolytic enzymes as additives for maize (Zea mays L.) silage - I. Effects of ensiling temperature, enzyme source and addition level

A series of experiments was completed to investigate the impact of addition of enzymes at ensiling on in vitro rumen degradation of maize silage. Two commercial products, Depot 40 (D, Biocatalysts Ltd., Pontypridd, UK) and Liquicell 2500 (L, Specialty Enzymes and Biochemicals, Fresno, CA, USA), were used. In experiment 1, the pH optima over a pH range 4.0-6.8 and the stability of D and L under changing pH (4.0, 5.6, 6.8) and temperature (15 and 39 degreesC) conditions were determined. In experiment 2, D and L were applied at three levels to whole crop maize at ensiling, using triplicate 0.5 kg capacity laboratory minisilos. A completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement of treatments was used. One set of treatments was stored at room temperature, whereas another set was stored at 40 degreesC during the first 3 weeks of fermentation, and then stored at room temperature. Silages were opened after 120 days. Results from experiment I indicated that the xylanase activity of both products showed an optimal pH of about 5.6, but the response differed according to the enzyme, whereas the endoglucanase activity was inversely related to pH. Both products retained at least 70% of their xylanase activity after 48 h incubation at 15 or 39 degreesC. In experiment 2, enzymes reduced (P < 0.05) silage pH, regardless of storage temperature and enzyme level. Depol 40 reduced (P < 0.05) the starch contents of the silages, due to its high alpha-amylase activity. This effect was more noticeable in the silages stored at room temperature. Addition of L reduced (P < 0.05) neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) contents. In vitro rumen degradation, assessed using the Reading Pressure Technique (RPT), showed that L increased (P < 0.05) the initial 6 h gas production (GP) and organic matter degradability (OMD), but did not affect (P > 0.05) the final extent of OMD, indicating that this preparation acted on the rumen degradable material. In contrast, silages treated with D had reduced (P < 0.05) rates of gas production and OMD. These enzymes, regardless of ensiling temperature, can be effective in improving the nutritive quality of maize silage when applied at ensiling. However, the biochemical properties of enzymes (i.e., enzymic activities, optimum pH) may have a crucial role in dictating the nature of the responses. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In vitro evaluation of fibrolytic enzymes as additives for maize (Zea mays L.) silage - II. Effects on rate of acidification, fibre degradation during ensiling and rumen fermentation

A study was carried out to determine the influence of fibrolytic enzymes derived from mesophilic or thermophilic fungal sources, added at ensiling, on time-course fermentation characteristics and in vitro rumen degradation of maize silage. The mesophilic enzyme was a commercial product derived from Trichodenna reesei (L), whereas the thermophilic enzyme was a crude extract produced from Thermoascus aurantiacus (Ta) in this laboratory. The fungus was cultured using maize cobs as a carbon source. The resulting fermentation extract was deionised to remove sugars and characterised for its protein concentration, main and side enzymic activities, optimal pH, protein molecular mass and isoelectric point. In an additional study, both enzymes were added to maize forage (333.5 g DM/kg, 70.0, 469.8, 227.1 and 307.5 g/kg DM of CP, NDF, ADF and starch, respectively) at two levels each, normalized according to xylanase activity, and ensiled in 0.5 kg capacity laboratory minisilos. Duplicate silos were opened at 2, 4, 8, 15, and 60 days after ensiling, and analysed for chemical characteristics. Silages from 60 days were bulked and in vitro gas production (GP) and organic matter degradability (OMD) profiles evaluated using the Reading Pressure Technique (RPT), in a completely randomised design. The crude enzyme extract contained mainly xylanase and endoglucanase activities, with very low levels of exoglucanase, which probably limited hydrolysis of filter paper. The extract contained three major protein bands of between 29 and 55 kDa, with mainly acidic isoelectric points. Ensiling maize with enzymes lowered (P < 0.05) the final silage pH, with this effect being observed throughout the ensiling process. All enzyme treatments reduced (P < 0.05) ADF contents. Treatments including Ta produced more gas (P < 0.05) than the controls after 24 h incubation in vitro, whereas end point gas production at 96 h was not affected. Addition of Ta increased (P < 0.01) OMD after 12 h (410 and 416 g/kg versus 373 g/kg), whereas both L and Ta increased (P < 0.05) OMD after 24 h. Addition of enzymes from mesophilic or thermophilic sources to maize forage at ensiling increased the rate of acidification of the silages and improved in vitro degradation kinetics, suggesting an improvement in the nutritive quality. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

Effect of biotic factors on the isolation of Lupinus albus protoplasts

Several tissue types of Lupinus albus L. were investigated as sources for the isolation of protoplasts. Cotyledons from in vitro seedlings were found to yield the highest number of protoplasts compared with leaves, hypocotyls and roots. A combination of the protoplast isolation enzymes, cellulase and Pectolyase Y23, was capable of releasing the highest number of protoplasts compared with a combination of cellulase and Macerase. Protoplast yield increased with increasing cotyledon age but was accompanied by a progressive decline in protoplast viability. The optimal combination of protoplast yield and viability occurred when the protoplasts were isolated from 14- to 18-day-old cotyledons. The ratio between the volume of enzyme solution and the tissue biomass did not affect the protoplast production significantly. This is the first report of the isolation of protoplasts from a lupin cotyledon and, following the procedure described in this paper, an average yield of 1.2 x 10(6) protoplasts per gram of fresh tissue was obtainable.

The cell wall and secretory proteome of a tobacco cell line synthesising secondary wall

The utility of plant secondary cell wall biomass for industrial and biofuel purposes depends upon improving cellulose amount, availability and extractability. The possibility of engineering such biomass requires much more knowledge of the genes and proteins involved in the synthesis, modification and assembly of cellulose, lignin and xylans. Proteomic data are essential to aid gene annotation and understanding of polymer biosynthesis. Comparative proteomes were determined for secondary walls of stem xylem and transgenic xylogenic cells of tobacco and detected peroxidase, cellulase, chitinase, pectinesterase and a number of defence/cell death related proteins, but not marker proteins of primary walls such as xyloglucan endotransglycosidase and expansins. Only the corresponding detergent soluble proteome of secretory microsomes from the xylogenic cultured cells, subjected to ion-exchange chromatography, could be determined accurately since, xylem-specific membrane yields were of poor quality from stem tissue. Among the 109 proteins analysed, many of the protein markers of the ER such as BiP, HSP70, calreticulin and calnexin were identified, together with some of the biosynthetic enzymes and associated polypeptides involved in polymer synthesis. However 53% of these endomembrane proteins failed identification despite the use of two different MS methods, leaving considerable possibilities for future identification of novel proteins involved in secondary wall polymer synthesis once full genomic data are available.

Effect of biotic factors on the isolation of Lupinus albus L. protoplasts

Several tissue types of Lupinus albus L. were investigated as sources for the isolation of protoplasts. Cotyledons from in vitro seedlings were found to yield the highest number of protoplasts compared with leaves, hypocotyls and roots. A combination of the protoplast isolation enzymes, cellulase and Pectolyase Y23, was capable of releasing the highest number of protoplasts compared with a combination of cellulase and Macerase. Protoplast yield increased with increasing cotyledon age but was accompanied by a progressive decline in protoplast viability. The optimal combination of protoplast yield and viability occurred when the protoplasts were isolated from 14- to 18-day-old cotyledons. The ratio between the volume of enzyme solution and the tissue biomass did not affect the protoplast production significantly. This is the first report of the isolation of protoplasts from a lupin cotyledon and, following the procedure described in this paper, an average yield of 1.2 × 106 protoplasts per gram of fresh tissue was obtainable.

Influence of organic fertilization on the number of culturable diazotrophic endophytic bacteria isolated from sugarcane

The numbers of culturable diazotrophic endophytic bacteria (CDEB) from roots stems and leaves of sugarcane submitted to organic inorganic or no fertilization were compared In order to determine the size of the N(2) fixing populations the Most Probable Number technique (MPN) was used The quantification of diazotrophic bacteria by using the acetylene reduction assay (ARA) was more accurate than observing the bacterial growth in the vials to confirm N(2) fixing capability the detection of gene nifH was performed on a sample of 105 Isolated bacteria The production of extracellular enzymes involved in the penetration of the plants by the bacteria was also studied The results showed that organic fertilization enhances the number of CDEB when compared with conventional fertilization used throughout the growing season The maximum number of bacteria was detected in the roots Roots and stems presented the greatest number of CDEB in the middle of the cropping season and in leaves numbers varied according to the treatment Using two pairs of primers and two different methods the nifH gene was found in 104 of the 105 tested isolates Larger amounts of pectinase were released by isolates from sugarcane treated with conventional fertilizers (66%) whereas larger amounts of cellulase were released by strains isolated from sugarcane treated with organic fertilizers (80%) (C) 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS All rights reserved

Enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sugar cane bagasse using Penicillium funiculosum and Trichoderma harzianum cellulases

In this study, we investigated the enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated sugarcane bagasse using eight different enzymatic blends obtained from concentrated crude enzyme extracts produced by Penicillium funiculosum and Trichoderma harzianum as well as from the extracts in combination with a commercial enzymatic cocktail. The influence of different levels of biomass delignification, degree of crystallinity of lignicellulose, composition of enzymatic activities and BSA on enzymatic hydrolysis yields (HYs) was evaluated. Our X-ray diffraction studies showed that crystallinity of lignocellulose is not a key determinant of its recalcitrance toward enzymatic hydrolysis. In fact, under the experimental conditions of our study, an increase in crystallinity of lignocellulosic samples resulted in increased glucose release by enzymatic hydrolysis. Furthermore, under the same conditions, the addition of BSA had no significant effect on enzymatic hydrolysis. The most efficient enzyme blends were obtained by mixing a commercial enzymatic cocktail with P. funiculosum or T. harzianum cellulase preparations (HYs above 97%) followed by the concentrated extract of P. funiculosum alone (HY= 88.5%). Increased hydrolytic efficiencies appeared to correlate with having an adequate level of both beta-glucosidase and xylanase activities in the blends. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Characterization of a beta-1,3-glucanase active in the alkaline midgut of Spodoptera frugiperda larvae and its relation to beta-glucan-binding proteins

Spodoptera frugiperda beta-1,3-glucanase (SLam) was purified from larval midgut. It has a molecular mass of 37.5 kDa, an alkaline optimum pH of 9.0, is active against beta-1,3-glucan (laminarin), but cannot hydrolyze yeast beta-1,3-1,6-glucan or other polysaccharides. The enzyme is an endoglucanase with low processivity (0.4), and is not inhibited by high concentrations of substrate. In contrast to other digestive beta-1,3-glucanases from insects, SLam is unable to lyse Saccharomyces cerevisae cells. The cDNA encoding SLam was cloned and sequenced, showing that the protein belongs to glycosyl hydrolase family 16 as other insect glucanases and glucan-binding proteins. Multiple sequence alignment of beta-1,3-glucanases and beta-glucan-binding protein supports the assumption that the beta-1,3-glucanase gene duplicated in the ancestor of mollusks and arthropods. One copy originated the derived beta-1,3-glucanases by the loss of an extended N-terminal region and the beta-glucan-binding proteins by the loss of the catalytic residues. SLam homology modeling suggests that E228 may affect the ionization of the catalytic residues, thus displacing the enzyme pH optimum. SLam antiserum reacts with a single protein in the insect midgut. Immunocytolocalization shows that the enzyme is present in secretory vesicles and glycocalyx from columnar cells. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.