Avaliação de biomarcadores moleculares em mulheres com câncer de ovário

Pós-graduação em Ginecologia, Obstetrícia e Mastologia - FMB

NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neutrophil recruitment and hypernociception depend on leukotriene B4 in a murine model of gout

Objective Deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate (MSU) crystals in the joints promotes an intense inflammatory response and joint dysfunction. This study evaluated the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX)derived leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in driving tissue inflammation and hypernociception in a murine model of gout. Methods. Gout was induced by injecting MSU crystals into the joints of mice. Wild-type mice and mice deficient in NLRP3, ASC, caspase 1, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), IL-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI), IL-18R, myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88), or 5-LOX were used. Evaluations were performed to assess neutrophil influx, LTB4 activity, cytokine (IL-1 beta, CXCL1) production (by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), synovial microvasculature cell adhesion (by intravital microscopy), and hypernociception. Cleaved caspase 1 and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were analyzed in macrophages by Western blotting and fluorometric assay, respectively. Results. Injection of MSU crystals into the knee joints of mice induced neutrophil influx and neutrophildependent hypernociception. MSU crystal-induced neutrophil influx was CXCR2-dependent and relied on the induction of CXCL1 in an NLRP3/ASC/caspase 1/IL-1 beta/MyD88-dependent manner. LTB4 was produced rapidly after injection of MSU crystals, and this was necessary for caspase 1-dependent IL-1 beta production and consequent release of CXCR2-acting chemokines in vivo. In vitro, macrophages produced LTB4 after MSU crystal injection, and LTB4 was relevant in the MSU crystalinduced maturation of IL-1 beta. Mechanistically, LTB4 drove MSU crystal-induced production of ROS and ROS-dependent activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Conclusion. These results reveal the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in mediating MSU crystalinduced inflammation and dysfunction of the joints, and highlight a previously unrecognized role of LTB4 in driving NLRP3 inflammasome activation in response to MSU crystals, both in vitro and in vivo.

Up-regulation of chemokine C-C ligand 2 (CCL2) and C-X-C chemokine 8 (CXCL8) expression by monocytes in chronic idiopathic urticaria

The disturbed cytokinechemokine network could play an important role in the onset of diseases with inflammatory processes such as chronic idiopathic urticaria (CIU). Our main objectives were to evaluate the relation between proinflammatory chemokine serum levels from CIU patients and their response to autologous skin test (ASST) and basophil histamine release (BHR). We also aimed to assess the chemokine secretion by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) upon polyclonal stimulus and to evaluate chemokine CC ligand 2/C-X-C chemokine 8 (CCL2/CXCL8) and Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) expression in monocytes. We observed significantly higher serum levels of the CXCL8, CXCL9, CXCL10 and CCL2 in CIU patients compared to the healthy group, regardless of the BHR or ASST response. The basal secretion of CCL2 by PBMC or induced by Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin A (SEA) was higher in CIU patients than in the control group, as well as for CXCL8 and CCL5 secretions upon phytohaemagglutinin stimulation. Also, up-regulation of CCL2 and CXCL8 mRNA expression was found in monocytes of patients upon SEA stimulation. The findings showed a high responsiveness of monocytes through CCL2/CXCL8 expression, contributing to the creation of a proinflammatory environment in CIU.

Nitric oxide modulates metalloproteinase-2, collagen deposition and adhesion rate after polypropylene mesh implantation in the intra-abdominal wall

Prosthetic meshes are commonly used to correct abdominal wall defects. However, the inflammatory reaction induced by these devices in the peritoneum is not completely understood. We hypothesized that nitric oxide (NO), produced by nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) may modulate the response induced by mesh implants in the abdominal wall and, consequently, affect the outcome of the surgical procedure. Polypropylene meshes were implanted in the peritoneal side of the abdominal wall in wild-type and NOS2-deficient (NOS2(-/-)) mice. After 15 days tissues around the mesh implant were collected, and inflammatory markers (the cytokine interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta) and NO) and tissue remodeling (collagen and metalloproteinases (MMP) 2 and 9) were analyzed. The lack of NOS2-derived NO induced a higher incidence of visceral adhesions at the mesh implantation site compared with wild-type mice that underwent the same procedure (P < 0.05). Additionally, higher levels of IL-1 beta were present in the mesh-implanted NOS2(-/-) animals compared with control and wild-type mice. Mesh implantation induced collagen I and III deposition, but in smaller amounts in NOS2(-/-) mice. MMP-9 activity after the surgical procedure was similarly increased in both groups. Conversely, MMP-2 activity was unchanged in mesh-implanted wild-type mice, but was significantly increased in NOS2(-/-) mice (P < 0.01), due to decreased S-nitrosylation of the enzyme in these animals. We conclude that NOS2-derived NO is crucial for an adequate response to and integration of polypropylene mesh implants in the peritoneum. NO deficiency results in a prolonged inflammatory reaction to the mesh implant, and reduced collagen deposition may contribute to an increased incidence of visceral adhesions. (C) 2011 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

STAT3 and SOCS3 expression patterns during murine placenta development

Signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (STAT3) has been identified as an important signal transducer in the invasive phenotype of the trophoblasts cells in in vitro studies. However, the in situ distribution and patterns of expression of this molecule in trophoblast cells during the development of the placenta are still under-elucidated. Mice uteri of gestational ages between 7 and 14 days of pregnancy (dop) were fixed in methacarn and processed with immunoperoxidase techniques for detection of STAT3 and its phosphorylation at serine (p-ser727) residues, as well as the suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) expression. STAT3 was observed at 7 through 9 dop in both the antimesometrial and mesometrial deciduas, while continued immunoreactivity between 10 and 13 dop was seen only in the mesometrial decidua. In the placenta, STAT3 was detected in the cytotrophoblast cells of labyrinth and giant trophoblast cells between 10 and 14 dop. Immunoreactivity for STAT3 was also seen in trophoblast cells surrounding the maternal blood vessels. On days 10 and 11 of pregnancy, p-ser727 was detectable in the mesometrial decidua and in giant trophoblasts, while during 12-14 dop in the spongiotrophoblast region. In addition, SOCS3 was immunodetected in maternal and placental tissues, principally in the giant trophoblast cells during the whole period of the study. The present in situ study shows the distribution of STAT3, its serine activation and SOCS3 in different maternal and fetal compartments during murine placental development, thus further supporting the idea that they play a role during physiological placentation in mice.

Processing of O 6 - methylguanine in mammalian cells

DNA methylating compounds are widely used as anti-cancer chemotherapeutics. The pharmaceutical critical DNA lesion induced by these drugs is O6-methylguanine (O6MeG). O6MeG is highly mutagenic and genotoxic, by triggering apoptosis. Despite the potency of O6MeG to induce cell death, the mechanism of O6MeG induced toxicity is still poorly understood. Comparing the response of mouse fibroblasts wild-type (wt) and deficient for ataxia telangiectasia mutant protein (ATM), a kinase responsible for both the recognition and the signalling of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), it was shown that ATM deficient cells are more sensitive to the methylating agents N-methyl-N’-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), methyl methansulfonate (MMS) and the anti-cancer drug temozolomide, in both colony formation and apoptosis assays. This clearly shows that DSBs are involved in O6MeG toxicity. By inactivating the O6MeG repair enzyme O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) with the specific inhibitor O6-benzylguanine (O6BG), ATM wt and deficient cells became more sensitive to MNNG and MMS. The opposite effect was observed when over-expressing MGMT in ATM -/- cells. The results show that O6MeG is the critical DNA lesion causing death in ATM cells following MNNG treatment, and is partially responsible for the toxicity observed following MMS treatment. Furthermore, by inhibiting the ATM kinase activity with caffeine, it was shown that the resistance of wt cells to MNNG was due to the kinase activity of ATM, as wt cells underwent more apoptosis following methylating agent treatment in the presence of caffeine. Apoptosis and caspase-3 activation were late events, starting 48h after treatment. This lends support to the model where O6MeG lesions are converted into DSBs during replication. As ATM wt and deficient cells showed similar G2/M blockage and Chk1 activation following MNNG and MMS treatment, it was concluded that the protective effect of ATM is not due to cell cycle progression control. The hypersensitivity of ATM deficient cells was accompanied by their inability to activate the anti-apoptotic NFkB pathway. In a second part of this study, it was shown that the inflammatory cytokine IL-1 up-regulates the DNA repair gene apurinic endonuclease 2 (APEX2). Up-regulation of APEX2 occurred by transcriptional regulation as it was abrogated by actinomycin D. APEX2 mRNA accumulation was accompanied by increase in APEX2 protein level. IL-1 induced APEX2 expression as well as transfection of cells with APEX2 cDNA positively correlated with a decrease in apoptosis after treatment with genotoxic agents, particularly affecting cell death after H2O2. This indicates an involvement of APEX2 in the BER pathway in cells responding to IL-1.

Immunologische Effekte von nativen Allergenen im Vergleich zu modifizierten Allergenen

Die Prävalenz allergischer Erkrankungen ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten, insbesondere in den Industriestaaten, stetig angestiegen und schreitet weiterhin fort. Die einzige kausale Therapie, die eine Langzeitwirkung verspricht und der Entwicklung neuer Allergien bzw. dem Fortschreiten der Allergie vorbeugen kann, ist die spezifische Immuntherapie (SIT). Da bei der SIT mit natürlichen Allergenextrakten Nebenwirkungen auftreten können, ist es wichtig Alternativen für diese zu finden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden native Allergene mit modifizierten Allergenen hinsichtlich ihrer Allergenität und Immunogenität verglichen. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass Glutaraldehyd-modifizierte Allergoide im Vergleich zu nativen Allergenextrakten und Formaldehyd-Allergoiden eine verminderte Allergenität besitzen, was sich z.B. durch den verminderten Release der Allergiemediatoren, den Leukotrienen, durch Basophile allergischer Spender zeigte. Gleichzeitig war allerdings die Fähigkeit Glutaraldehyd-Allergoid-behandelter dendritischer Zellen (DC) autologe CD4+ T-Zellen zu stimulieren stark reduziert. Verglichen mit den nativen Allergenextrakten und den Formaldehyd-Allergoiden waren die Zytokinproduktion und die T-Zellproliferation, für letztere signifikant, vermindert. Damit übereinstimmend war die Aufnahme von Fluoreszenz-markierten Glutaraldehyd-Allergoiden in unreife DC reduziert. Daraus lässt sich schießen, dass die Modifizierung mit Glutaraldehyd, jedoch nicht mit Formaldehyd, zumindest bei den hier verwendeten Allergenpräparaten, B-Zell-Epitope zerstört und somit die Allergenität herabgesetzt wurde. Allerdings war dabei gleichzeitig die Immunogenität vermindert. Das verminderte Vorkommen der B-Zell-Epitope wäre beim Einsatz der Allergoide von Vorteil, da damit eine verminderte IgE-Bindekapazität einhergeht und unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen reduziert werden können. Jedoch sollte im günstigsten Fall bei der Allergoidisierung die T-Zell-Stimulationsfähigkeit intakt bleiben, was bei den hier verwendeten Glutaraldehyd-modifizierten Allergoiden nicht der Fall war. rnMit Einzelallergenen aus Birken- und Gräserpollen konnten keine vergleichbaren T-Zellantworten erzielt werden wie mit den Gesamtallergenextrakten. Auch hier waren Proliferation und Zytokinproduktion durch CD4+ T-Zellen nach Stimulation mit Einzelallergen-gepulsten DC bei Verwendung von Glutaraldehyd-modifizierten Allergoiden vermindert. rnEine adjuvante Wirkung von Aluminiumhydroxid (Alum) in vitro konnte in dieser Arbeit nicht eindeutig gezeigt werden. Zunächst konnte beobachtet werden, dass die eingesetzten Alum-adsorbierten Allergene und Allergoide eine toxische Wirkung auf DC hatten. Die Proliferation CD4+ T-Zellen konnte durch DC, die mit Alum-adsorbierten Allergenen behandelt wurden, nicht verstärkt werden, verglichen mit DC, die mit unadsorbiertem Allergen gepulst wurden. Es konnte lediglich eine erhöhte Produktion des Th2 Zytokins IL-4 durch Alum induziert werden. Einen Adjuvanteffekt, der in Zusammenhang mit der Induktion des pro-inflammatorischen Zytokins IL-1β stehen soll, konnte mittels ELISA in den Überständen unreifer DC nicht nachgewiesen werden. Lediglich in Monozyten, die zusätzlich mit dem TLR-Ligand LPS stimuliert wurden, war IL-1β in den Überständen detektierbar. Auf mRNA-Ebene konnte man einen leichten Effekt durch Alum hinsichtlich der IL-1β Expression erkennen. Nach zusätzlicher Gabe verschiedener Alum-Präparationen zu unreifen DC, die mit Allergen oder LPS stimuliert wurden, exprimierten diese leicht verstärkt IL-1β verglichen mit DC, die kein Alum erhielten.

Evaluation of the transforming growth factor beta1 codon 25 (Arg-->Pro) polymorphism in alcoholic liver disease

INTRODUCTION: Liver cirrhosis develops only in a minority of heavy drinkers. Genetic factors may account for some variation in the progression of fibrosis in alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFbeta1) is a key profibrogenic cytokine in fibrosis and its gene contains several polymorphic sites. A single nucleotide polymorphism at codon 25 has been suggested to affect fibrosis progression in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection, fatty liver disease, and hereditary hemochromatosis. Its contribution to the progression of ALD has not been investigated sufficiently so far. PATIENTS AND METHODS: One-hundred-and-fifty-one heavy drinkers without apparent ALD, 149 individuals with alcoholic cirrhosis, and 220 alcoholic cirrhotics who underwent liver transplantation (LTX) were genotyped for TGFbeta1 codon 25 variants. RESULTS: Univariate analysis suggested that genotypes Arg/Pro or Pro/Pro are associated with decompensated liver cirrhosis requiring LTX. However, after adjusting for patients' age these genotypes did not confer a significant risk for cirrhosis requiring LTX. CONCLUSION: TGFbeta1 codon 25 genotypes Arg/Pro or Pro/Pro are not associated with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. Our study emphasizes the need for adequate statistical methods and accurate study design when evaluating the contribution of genetic variants to the course of chronic liver diseases.

CHARACTERIZING A NOVEL GENETIC LOCUS ASSOCIATED WITH FAMILIAL CO-OCCURRENCE OF THORACIC AORTIC ANEURYSMS AND INTRACRANIAL ANEURYSMS

The Mendelian inheritance of genetic mutations can lead to adult-onset cardiovascular disease. Several genetic loci have been mapped for the familial form of Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms (TAA), and many causal mutations have been identified for this disease. Intracranial Aneurysms (ICA) also show linkage heterogeneity, but no mutations have been identified causing familial ICA alone. Here, we characterized a large family (TAA288) with an autosomal dominant pattern of inherited aneurysms. It is intriguing that female patients predominantly present with ICA and male patients predominantly with TAA in this family. To identify a causal mutation in this family, a genome-wide linkage analysis was previously performed on nine members of this family using the 50k GenChips Hind array from Affymetrix. This analysis eventually identified a single disease-segregating locus, on chromosome 5p15. We build upon this previous analysis in this study, hypothesizing that a genetic mutation inherited in this locus leads to the sex-specific phenotype of TAA and ICA in this family First we refined the boundaries of the 5p15 disease linked locus down to the genomic coordinates 5p15: 3,424,465- 6,312,925 (GRCh37/hg19 Assembly). This locus was named the TAA288 critical interval. Next, we sequenced candidate genes within the TAA288 critical interval. The selection of genes was simplified by the relatively small number of well-characterized genetic elements within the region. Seeking novel or rare disease-segregating variants, we initially observed a single point alteration in the metalloproteinase gene ADAMTS16 fulfilling this criteria. This variant was later classified as a low-frequency population polymorphism (rs72647757), but we continued to explore the potential role of the ADAMTS16 as the cause of disease in TAA288. We observed that fibroblasts cultured from TAA288 patients consistently upregulated the expression of this gene more strongly compared to matched control fibroblasts when treated with the cytokine TGF-β1, though there was some variation in the exact nature of this expression. We also observed evidence that this protein is expressed at elevated levels in aortic aneurysm tissue from patients with mutations in the gene TGFBR2 and Marfan syndrome, shown by immunohistochemical detection of this protein.

Spinal cord injury causes sustained disruption of the blood-testis barrier in the rat.

There is a high incidence of infertility in males following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Quality of semen is frequently poor in these patients, but the pathophysiological mechanism(s) causing this are not known. Blood-testis barrier (BTB) integrity following SCI has not previously been examined. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of spinal contusion injury on the BTB in the rat. 63 adult, male Sprague Dawley rats received SCI (n = 28), laminectomy only (n = 7) or served as uninjured, age-matched controls (n = 28). Using dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI), BTB permeability to the vascular contrast agent gadopentate dimeglumine (Gd) was assessed at either 72 hours-, or 10 months post-SCI. DCE-MRI data revealed that BTB permeability to Gd was greater than controls at both 72 h and 10 mo post-SCI. Histological evaluation of testis tissue showed increased BTB permeability to immunoglobulin G at both 72 hours- and 10 months post-SCI, compared to age-matched sham-operated and uninjured controls. Tight junctional integrity within the seminiferous epithelium was assessed; at 72 hours post-SCI, decreased expression of the tight junction protein occludin was observed. Presence of inflammation in the testes was also examined. High expression of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta was detected in testis tissue. CD68(+) immune cell infiltrate and mast cells were also detected within the seminiferous epithelium of both acute and chronic SCI groups but not in controls. In addition, extensive germ cell apoptosis was observed at 72 h post-SCI. Based on these results, we conclude that SCI is followed by compromised BTB integrity by as early as 72 hours post-injury in rats and is accompanied by a substantial immune response within the testis. Furthermore, our results indicate that the BTB remains compromised and testis immune cell infiltration persists for months after the initial injury.

The role of the conserved N -terminal domain of STAT3 in STAT3 dephosphorylation and nuclear export

Rapid redistribution of STAT subcellular localization is an essential feature of cytokine signaling. To elucidate the molecular basis of STAT3 function, which plays a critical role in controlling innate immune responses in vivo, we initiated studies to determine the mechanisms controlling STAT3 nuclear trafficking. We found that STAT3 is transported to the nucleus in the absence of cytokine treatment, as judged by indirect immunofluorescence studies in the presence of leptomycin B, an inhibitor of CRM1-dependent nuclear export, suggesting that the non-phosphorylated STAT3 protein contains a functional nuclear import signal. An isoform lacking the STAT3 N-terminal domain (Δ133STAT3) retains the ability to undergo constitutive nuclear localization, indicating that this region is not essential for cytokine-independent nuclear import. Δ133STAT3 is also transported to the nucleus following stimulation with interleukin-6 (IL-6). Interestingly, IL-6-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation of Δ133STAT3 appears to be prolonged and the nuclear export of the protein delayed in cells expressing endogenous STAT3, consistent with defective Δ133STAT3 dephosphorylation. Endogenous STAT3 does not promote the nuclear export of Δ133STAT3, although dimerization between endogenous Stat3 and Δ133STAT3 is detected readily. Thus, the STAT3 N-terminal domain is not required for dimerization with full-length STAT3, yet appears to play a role in proper export of Stat3 from the nucleus following cytokine stimulation. STAT3-deficient cells reconstituted with Δ133STAT3 show enhanced and prolonged Stat1 signaling in response to IL-6, suggesting that induction of the STAT3-dependent negative regulator SOCS3 is impaired. In fact, Δ133STAT3 fails to induce SOCS3 mRNA efficiently. These studies collectively indicate that the STAT3 N-terminal region may be important for IL-6-dependent target gene activation and nuclear dephosphorylation, while dispensable for nuclear import. STAT3 is an oncogene. STAT3 is constitutively activated in primary tumors of many types. Thus far, research in the design of STAT3 protein inhibitors has focused on the SH2 and DNA-binding domains of STAT3. Interference with these domains eliminates all signaling through STAT3. If the N-terminal domain is involved in tetramerization on a subset of target genes, inhibition of this region may lead to a more selective inhibition of some STAT3 functions while leaving others intact. ^

Molecular characteristics of fibroblast growth factor–fibroblast growth factor receptor–heparin-like glycosaminoglycan complex

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family plays key roles in development, wound healing, and angiogenesis. Understanding of the molecular nature of interactions of FGFs with their receptors (FGFRs) has been seriously limited by the absence of structural information on FGFR or FGF–FGFR complex. In this study, based on an exhaustive analysis of the primary sequences of the FGF family, we determined that the residues that constitute the primary receptor-binding site of FGF-2 are conserved throughout the FGF family, whereas those of the secondary receptor binding site of FGF-2 are not. We propose that the FGF–FGFR interaction mediated by the ‘conserved’ primary site interactions is likely to be similar if not identical for the entire FGF family, whereas the ‘variable’ secondary sites, on both FGF as well as FGFR mediates specificity of a given FGF to a given FGFR isoform. Furthermore, as the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 1 (IL-1) and FGF-2 share the same structural scaffold, we find that the spatial orientation of the primary receptor-binding site of FGF-2 coincides structurally with the IL-1β receptor-binding site when the two molecules are superimposed. The structural similarities between the IL-1 and the FGF system provided a framework to elucidate molecular principles of FGF–FGFR interactions. In the FGF–FGFR model proposed here, the two domains of a single FGFR wrap around a single FGF-2 molecule such that one domain of FGFR binds to the primary receptor-binding site of the FGF molecule, while the second domain of the same FGFR binds to the secondary receptor-binding site of the same FGF molecule. Finally, the proposed model is able to accommodate not only heparin-like glycosaminoglycan (HLGAG) interactions with FGF and FGFR but also FGF dimerization or oligomerization mediated by HLGAG.

Receptor-associated constitutive protein tyrosine phosphatase activity controls the kinase function of JAK1

Exposure of cells to protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) inhibitors causes an increase in the phosphotyrosine content of many cellular proteins. However, the level at which the primary signaling event is affected is still unclear. We show that Jaks are activated by tyrosine phosphorylation in cells that are briefly exposed to the PTP inhibitor pervanadate (PV), resulting in tyrosine phosphorylation and functional activation of Stat6 (in addition to other Stats). Mutant cell lines that lack Jak1 activity fail to support PV-mediated [or interleukin 4 (IL-4)-dependent] activation of Stat6 but can be rescued by complementation with functional Jak1. The docking sites for both Jak1 and Stat6 reside in the cytoplasmic domain of the IL-4 receptor α-chain (IL-4Rα). The glioblastoma-derived cell lines T98G, GRE, and M007, which do not express the IL-4Rα chain, fail to support Stat6 activation in response to either IL-4 or PV. Complementation of T98G cells with the IL-4Rα restores both PV-mediated and IL-4-dependent Stat6 activation. Murine L929 cells, which do not express the γ common chain of the IL-4 receptor, support PV-mediated but not IL-4-dependent Stat6 activation. Thus, Stat6 activation by PV is an IL-4Rα-mediated, Jak1-dependent event that is independent of receptor dimerization. We propose that receptor-associated constitutive PTP activity functions to down-regulate persistent, receptor-linked kinase activity. Inhibition or deletion of PTP activity results in constitutive activation of cytokine signaling pathways.

Production of β-defensins by human airway epithelia

Human β-defensins (HBDs) are antimicrobial peptides that may play a role in mucosal defense. Diminished activity of these peptides has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis (CF) lung disease. We show that HBD-1 and HBD-2 mRNAs are expressed in excised surface and submucosal gland epithelia from non-CF and CF patients. The pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β stimulated the expression of HBD-2 but not HBD-1 mRNA and peptide in primary cultures of airway epithelia. HBD-1 was found in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from normal volunteers, CF patients, and patients with inflammatory lung diseases, whereas HBD-2 was detected in BAL fluid from patients with CF or inflammatory lung diseases, but not in normal volunteers. Both HBD-1 and HBD-2 were found in BAL fluid in concentrations of several ng/ml, and both recombinant peptides showed salt-sensitive bactericidal activity. These data suggest that in the lung HBD-2 expression is induced by inflammation, whereas HBD-1 may serve as a defense in the absence of inflammation.