Ancient Calendars and Bolivian Modernity: Tiwanaku’s Gateway of the Sun, Arthur Posnansky, and the World Calendar Movement of the 1930s

Tourists to the archaeological site of Tiwanaku are presented with ancient calendars, of which the Gateway of the Sun is the most important, famous, and beautiful. Arthur Posnansky and other early 20th-century archaeologists claimed that its inscriptions constituted a written calendar. These claims were intimately connected to narratives of Tiwanaku as a central source of knowledge in both pre-Columbian times and the contemporary world. Posnansky presented his interpretation of Tiwanaku’s calendars as a response to the debates of the World Calendar Movement, which in the 1930s was attempting to rationalize the Gregorian calendar. In the Gateway, Posnansky found a uniquely Bolivian response to the international, North Atlantic-dominated scientific community’s search for a rational way to keep time in the world economy. Bolivian intellectuals merged their interest in the indigenous past with their concerns about the role of the modernist Bolivian state in the global system.

Evaluating the Quality and Accuracy of TanDEM-X Digital Elevation Models at Archaeological Sites in the Cilician Plain, Turkey

Satellite remote sensing provides a powerful instrument for mapping and monitoring traces of historical settlements and infrastructure, not only in distant areas and crisis regions. It helps archaeologists to embed their findings from field surveys into the broader context of the landscape. With the start of the TanDEM-X mission, spatially explicit 3D-information is available to researchers at an unprecedented resolution worldwide. We examined different experimental TanDEM-X digital elevation models (DEM) that were processed from two different imaging modes (Stripmap/High Resolution Spotlight) using the operational alternating bistatic acquisition mode. The quality and accuracy of the experimental DEM products was compared to other available DEM products and a high precision archaeological field survey. The results indicate the potential of TanDEM-X Stripmap (SM) data for mapping surface elements at regional scale. For the alluvial plain of Cilicia, a suspected palaeochannel could be reconstructed. At the local scale, DEM products from TanDEM-X High Resolution Spotlight (HS) mode were processed at 2 m spatial resolution using a merge of two monostatic/bistatic interferograms. The absolute and relative vertical accuracy of the outcome meet the specification of high resolution elevation data (HRE) standards from the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG) at the HRE20 level.

Evidence for tuberculosis in 18th/19th century slaves in Anse Sainte-Marguerite (Guadeloupe - French Western Indies)

During the American colonization in the 18th and 19th century, Africans were captured and shipped to America. Harsh living and working conditions often led to chronic diseases and high mortality rates. Slaves in the Caribbean were forced to work mainly on sugar plantations. They were buried in cemeteries like Anse Sainte-Marguerite on the isle of Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe) which was examined by archaeologists and physical anthropologists. Morphological studies on osseous remains of 148 individuals revealed 15 cases with signs for bone tuberculosis and a high frequency of periosteal reactions which indicates early stages of the disease. 11 bone samples from these cemeteries were analysed for ancient DNA. The samples were extracted with established procedures and examined for the cytoplasmic multicopy β-actin gene and Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA (IS 6110) by PCR. An amplification product for M. tuberculosis with the size of 123 bp was obtained. Sequencing confirmed the result. This study shows evidence of M. tuberculosis complex DNA in a Caribbean slave population.

NEENAWA: Network in Eastern European Neolithic and Wetland Archaeology: first steps.

Neolithic and Bronze Age wetland sites around the Alps (so called pile-dwellings, Pfahlbauten or palafittes in German/French) are of outstanding universal value (UNESCO-world heritage since 2011). Typical sites are in lakes, rivers and bogs, dating between 5300 and 800 BC. Of common character is the perfect conservation of wood, textiles from plant fabrics and many other organic materials. Larger quantities of sub-fossilized wood, as in the peri-alpine sites, offer the possibility of high-precision dating by dendrochronology. Research in these wetland sites started in the mid-19th century. Through large scale rescue excavations since the 1970s and the evolution of underwater archaeology in the same period the Swiss accumulated a thorough experience with these specific sites. Research in wetland sites is shared between cantonal institutions and universities and led to a worldwide unique accumulation of knowledge. Comparable sites exist outside of the Alpine area, but in much smaller quantities. Regions like Russia (small lakes in NW-Russia) and Macedonia (medium size lakes in the border zone of Macedonia, Albania and Greece) have a high scientific potential; rivers in Ukraine are supposed to have the same type of sites.

Energy, Complexity and Strategies of Evolution. En: Avá, nº 14

Cultural evolution has long been among the themes of anthropology but it has never ranked high. It is left mainly to archaeologists because they have to make sense of how society works and survives through time–a concern that has pretty much been abandoned by many cultural anthropologists. Anthropologists today seem little motivated to find out how society works, but rather to make the world a better place to live in for a particular population. The challenges of atmospheric change, nuclear proliferation, environmental degradation and resource exhaustion, the emergence of life threatening species–these challenges of contemporary evolution have awakened less interest in anthropology. The concern with cultural evolution seems to be of greater interest to non-anthropologists, such as in the work of Jarrod Diamond (2005), a biologist, and the genre that as emerged as Big History, with the works of David Christian (2005) and others. Among the few contemporary anthropologists who have sought the dynamics of cultural evolution, the work of Joseph Tainter (1996) stands out.

Simulated agricultural subsistence, timing of transition, and percentage of immigrant farmers

Farming and herding were introduced to Europe from the Near East and Anatolia; there are, however, considerable arguments about the mechanisms of this transition. Were it the people who moved and either outplaced, or admixed with, the indigenous hunter-gatherer groups? Or was it material and information that moved---the Neolithic Package---consisting of domesticated plants and animals and the knowledge of their use? The latter process is commonly referred to as cultural diffusion and the former as demic diffusion. Despite continuous and partly combined efforts by archaeologists, anthropologists, linguists, palaeontologists and geneticists, a final resolution of the debate has not yet been reached. In the present contribution we interpret results from the Global Land Use and technological Evolution Simulator (GLUES). GLUES is a mathematical model for regional sociocultural development, embedded in the geoenvironmental context, during the Holocene. We demonstrate that the model is able to realistically hindcast the expansion speed and the inhomogeneous space-time evolution of the transition to agropastoralism in western Eurasia. In contrast to models that do not resolve endogenous sociocultural dynamics, our model describes and explains how and why the Neolithic advanced in stages. We uncouple the mechanisms of migration and information exchange and also of migration and the spread of agropastoralism. We find that: (1) An indigenous form of agropastoralism could well have arisen in certain Mediterranean landscapes, but not in Northern and Central Europe, where it depended on imported technology and material. (2) Both demic diffusion by migration and cultural diffusion by trade may explain the western European transition equally well. (3) Migrating farmers apparently contribute less than local adopters to the establishment of agropastoralism. Our study thus underlines the importance of adoption of introduced technologies and economies by resident foragers.

Molinos mineros de tradición andina

El presente trabajo contiene aportes para la clasificación tipológica de los molinos mineros utilizados en los Andes precolombinos. Se apoya en las descripciones que nos han legado los arqueólogos, ingenieros de minas, cronistas españoles, etc., con referencias a evidencias arqueológicas y etnográficas presentes en Cobres, Incahuasi, Rosario de Coyahuaima, Capillitas, Andalgalá y Tacuil (Argentina); Zapar (Chile); Porco y Potosí (Bolivia); así como en Santiago de Tulpo (Perú), etc. Es necesario destacar que la temática abordada contribuye al conocimiento de los molinos mineros y constituye un aspecto apenas divulgado del patrimonio minero andino. ABSTRACT This paper contains contributions on the typological classification of the Pre-Columbian Andean mining mills. It is based on the descriptions of archaeologists, mining engineers, Spanish chroniclers, etc., with references to archaeological and ethnographic evidences present in Cobres, Incahuasi, Rosario de Coyahuaima, Capillitas, Andalgalá and Tacuil (Argentina); Zapar (Chile); Porco and Potosi (Bolivia); as well as in Santiago de Tulpo (Peru), etc. It is necessary to emphasize that the topics treated contribute to the knowledge of the mining mills and constitutes a non well known aspect of the Andean mining heritage.

Modelo gráfico para la datación de vías romanas empedradas a partir del estudio de sus estados de frecuentación y del análisis superficial de roderas

La presente tesis doctoral se orienta al estudio y análisis de los caminos empedrados antiguos, desde la época prerromana, tanto desde el punto de vista histórico como desde el técnico. La cuantificación de la romanidad de un camino representa un objetivo importante para la mayoría de los estudiosos de la caminería antigua, así como para los arqueólogos, por los datos que ofrece acerca del uso del territorio, los trazados de caminos en la antigüedad y los tráficos asociados. Cuantificar la romanidad de un camino no es tarea sencilla debido a que intervienen multitud de condicionantes que están vivos y son cambiantes como consecuencia del dinamismo inherente al propio camino. En cuanto al aspecto histórico, se realiza una descripción y análisis de la evolución del camino en la Península Ibérica desde sus orígenes hasta mediados del siglo XX, que permite diferenciar la red itineraria según su momento histórico. Así mismo, se describen y analizan: las ruedas y los carros desde sus orígenes, especialmente en la época romana -incluyendo una toma de medidas de distintos tipos de carro, existentes en instituciones y colecciones particulares-; las técnicas de transporte en la antigüedad y las características de la infraestructura viaria de época romana, detallando aspectos generales de sus técnicas de ingeniería y construcción. Desde el punto de vista técnico, el enfoque metodológico ha sido definir un Índice de Romanidad del Camino (IRC) para la datación de vías romanas empedradas, basado en un análisis multicriterio, a partir de los distintos factores que caracterizan su romanidad. Se ha realizado un exhaustivo estudio de campo, con la correspondiente toma de datos en las vías. Se han realizado una serie de ensayos de laboratorio con un prototipo creado exprofeso para simular el desgaste de la piedra producido por el traqueteo del carro al circular por el camino empedrado y dar una hipótesis de datación del camino. Se ha realizado un tratamiento estadístico con la muestra de datos medidos en campo. Se ha definido además el concepto de elasticidad de rodera usando la noción de derivada elástica. En cuanto a los resultados obtenidos: se ha calculado el Índice de Romanidad del Camino (IRC) en una serie de vías empedradas, para cuantificar su romanidad, obteniéndose un resultado coherente con la hipótesis previa sobre la datación de dichas vías; y se ha formulado un modelo exponencial para el número de frecuentaciones de carga que lo relaciona con la elasticidad de rodera y con su esbeltez y que se ha utilizado para relacionar la elasticidad de la rodera con la geología de la roca. Se ha iniciado una línea de investigación sobre la estimación de tráficos históricos en la caminería antigua, considerando que el volumen de tráfico a lo largo del tiempo en un tramo de vía está relacionado con los valores de elasticidad de rodera de dicho tramo a través de la tipología de la roca. En resumen, la presente tesis doctoral proporciona un método para sistematizar el estudio de los caminos antiguos, así como para datarlos y estimar la evolución de sus tráficos. The present Ph. D. Thesis aims to study and to analyze ancient cobbled ways, since pre-roman times, both from the historical and technical points of view. The quantification of the Roman character of a way represents an important target for most of the researchers of ancient ways, as well as for the archaeologists, due to information that it offers about the use of the territory, the tracings of ways in the antiquity and the associate flows. To quantify the Roman character of a way is not a simple task because it involves multitude of influent factors that are alive and variable as a result of the dynamism inherent to the way. As for the historical aspect, a description and analysis of the evolution of the way in the Iberian Peninsula from its origins until the middle of the twentieth century has been done. This allows us to distinguish between elements of the network according to its historical moment. Likewise, a description and analysis is given about: the wheels and the cars since their origins, especially in the Roman time - including a capture of measurements of different types of car, belonging to institutions and to particular collections-; the transport techniques on the antiquity and the characteristics of the road infrastructure of Roman epoch, detailing general technical engineering and constructive aspects. From the technical point of view, the methodological approach has been to define an Index of the Roman Character of the Way (IRC) for the dating of cobbled Roman routes, based on a multi-criterion analysis, involving different factors typical of Roman ways. An exhaustive field study has been realized, with the corresponding capture of information in the routes. A series of laboratory essays has been realized with an ad hoc prototype created to simulate the wear of the stone produced by cars circulating along the cobbled way, and to give a dating hypothesis of the way. A statistical treatment has been realized with the sample of information measured in field. There has been defined also the concept of elasticity of rolling trace using the notion of elastic derivative. As for the obtained results: there has been calculated the Index of Roman Character of the Way (IRC) in a series of cobbled routes, to quantify its Roman character, obtaining a coherent result with the previous dating hypothesis of the above mentioned routes; and an exponential model has been formulated for the number of frequent attendances of load that relates this number to the elasticity of rolling trace and to its slenderness and that has been used to relate the elasticity of the rolling trace to the geology of the rock. An investigation line has been opened about the estimation of historical flows in ancient ways, considering that the traffic volume over the course of time in a route stretch is related to the values of elasticity of rolling trace of the above mentioned stretch by means of the typology of the rock. In short, the present Ph. D. Thesis provides a method to systematize the study of ancient ways, as well as to date them and to estimate the evolution of their flows.

Teoría y práctica de la restauración de la Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba durante el siglo XX

La Mezquita-Catedral de Córdoba es un edificio vivo. Un edificio que ha sido transformado sucesivamente por hombres de razas, culturas y religiones distintas durante sus más de 1.200 años de vida y que, a pesar de ello, no ha dejado de estar en uso ni uno solo de esos días de esa larga vida. De esta forma, el edificio se muestra ante el visitante como un complejo objeto arquitectónico, resultado de una continua transformación. La capacidad de la transformación de los edificios es algo inherente a su propia condición arquitectónica, no es un hecho exclusivo de la Mezquita-Catedral. Sin embargo, en este edificio esa transformación se produce con una gran intensidad y sin pérdida de su autenticidad. Tradicionalmente, los edificios se han adaptado a los nuevos requerimientos de cada época en un proceso que ha buscado en el propio edificio las leyes o principios que habían de regir la intervención. De esta forma, tanto las sucesivas ampliaciones de la Mezquita de Abd al-Rahman I como las siguientes intervenciones cristianas debieron asumir lo preexistente como material de trabajo. Así, los arquitectos del califa al-Hakam II dialogaron con sus antecesores complejizando el espacio que recibieron, así como los Hernán Ruiz consiguieron un nuevo organismo resultante de la introducción de su arquitectura luminosa en la trama hispanomusulmana. El siglo XIX confirmó el deseo por descubrir las huellas de un pasado esplendoroso que la intervención barroca había silenciado bajo un tratamiento homogéneo del espacio. La recuperación de esas huellas supuso, hace exactamente dos siglos, el inicio de la última gran etapa en la transformación del edificio, la de la restauración. La fábrica es considerada como objeto a conservar y los esfuerzos desde ese momento se centraron en la recuperación de la arquitectura omeya latente. De este modo, la práctica de la restauración como disciplina se encontró absolutamente influenciada por la Arqueología como única fuente de conocimiento. Las intervenciones buscaban lo original como modo de recuperar espacial y formalmente aquel pasado, concentrándose en los lugares del edificio considerados como esenciales. La declaración del edificio como monumento nacional en 1882 propició que el Estado se hiciera cargo de su mantenimiento y conservación, sustituyendo en esa tarea a los Obispos y Cabildos del siglo XIX, que tuvieron un entendimiento muy avanzado para su época. La llegada del arquitecto Velázquez Bosco en las últimas décadas del siglo XIX supuso un cambio trascendental en la historia del edificio, puesto que recibió un edificio con importantes deterioros y consiguió poner las bases del edificio que hoy contemplamos. El empeño por la recuperación material y espacial devolvió a la Mezquita-Catedral buena parte de su imagen original, reproduciendo con exactitud los modelos hallados en las exploraciones arqueológicas. La llegada de Antonio Flórez tras la muerte de Velázquez Bosco supuso la traslación al edificio del debate disciplinar que se desarrolló en las dos primeras décadas del siglo XX. Flórez procuró un nuevo entendimiento de la intervención, considerando la conservación como actuación prioritaria. En 1926 el Estado reformó la manera en que se atendía al patrimonio con la creación de un sistema de zonas y unos arquitectos a cargo de ellas. La existencia de un nuevo marco legislativo apuntaló esa nueva visión conservativa, avalada por la Carta de Atenas de 1931. Este modelo restauración científica huía de la intervención en estilo y valoraba la necesidad de intervenir de la manera más escueta posible y con un lenguaje diferenciado, basándose en los datos que ofrecía la Arqueología. Por tanto, se continuaba con la valoración del edificio como documento histórico, buscando en este caso una imagen diferenciada de la intervención frente a la actitud mimética de Velázquez. Resulta destacable la manera en la que el historiador Manuel Gómez-Moreno influyó en varias generaciones de arquitectos, arqueólogos e historiadores, tanto en el entendimiento científico de la restauración como en la propia estructura administrativa. La labor desarrollada en el edificio por José Mª Rodríguez Cano primero y Félix Hernández a continuación estuvo influida de manera teórica por el método de Gómez-Moreno, aunque en muchos aspectos su labor no representó una gran diferencia con lo hecho por Velázquez Bosco. La búsqueda de lo original volvió a ser recurrente, pero la carga económica del mantenimiento de un edificio tan extenso conllevó la no realización de muchos de los proyectos más ambiciosos. Esta obsesiva búsqueda de la imagen original del edificio tuvo su última y anacrónica etapa con la intervención de la Dirección General de Arquitectura en los 70. Sin embargo, el agotamiento del modelo científico ya había propiciado un nuevo escenario a nivel europeo, que cristalizó en la Carta de Venecia de 1964 y en una nueva definición del objeto a preservar, más allá del valor como documento histórico. Esta nueva posición teórica tuvo su traslación al modelo restaurador español en el último cuarto de siglo XX, coincidiendo con la Transición. El arquitecto Dionisio Hernández Gil defendió una interpretación distinta a la de los arqueólogos y de los historiadores, que había prevalecido durante todo el siglo. En opinión de Hernández Gil, los problemas de intervención debían enfocarse fundamentalmente como problemas de Arquitectura, abandonando la idea de que solamente podían ser resueltos por especialistas. Esta convicción teórica fue defendida desde la nueva Administración y deparó la utilización de unos criterios de intervención particularizados, provenientes del análisis multifocal de cada situación y no sólo desde el valor de los edificios como documentos históricos. Y este cambio tuvo su traslación a la Mezquita-Catedral con la práctica de Gabriel Ruiz Cabrero y Gabriel Rebollo. En consecuencia con esa nueva perspectiva, aceptaron el edificio que recibieron, sustituyendo la búsqueda de aquella página original por la aceptación de cada una de las páginas de su historia y el respeto a las técnicas constructivas del pasado. La búsqueda de soluciones específicas desde el propio objeto arquitectónico significó la renovada atención a la potente estructura formal-constructiva como origen de toda reflexión. Considerar la Mezquita-Catedral en primer lugar como Arquitectura implicaba la atención a todo tipo de factores además de los históricos, como medio para preservar su autenticidad. Esta tesis pretende demostrar que la práctica de la restauración realizada en la Mezquita-Catedral a lo largo del siglo XX ha evolucionado desde la búsqueda de lo original hasta la búsqueda de lo auténtico, como reflejo de una visión basada en lo arqueológico frente a una renovada visión arquitectónica más completa, que incluye a la anterior. La consideración de la intervención en este edificio como otra página más de su historia y no como la última, significa la reedición de un mecanismo recurrente en la vida del edificio y un nuevo impulso en ese proceso de continua transformación. ABSTRACT The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba is a living building. A building transformed by men of different races, cultures and religions during more than 1.200 years old and that, nevertheless, it has continued to be in use all days in that long life. Thus, the building shows to the visitor as a complex architectural object, the result of continuous transformation. This transformation capacity of the buildings is inherent in their own architectural condition, it’s not an exclusive fact of the Mosque-Cathedral. However, in this building that transformation happens with a great intensity, without losing their authenticity. Traditionally, buildings have been adapted to the new requirements of times in a process that looked for laws or principles in order to guide the intervention. Thus, both the successive enlargements of the Mosque of Abd al-Rahman and Christian interventions must assume the preexistence as a working material. So, the architects of the caliph al-Hakam II spoke to their predecessors, complexing the receiving space, as well as Hernan Ruiz got a new organism as result the introduction of his luminous architecture into hispanic-muslim weft. The nineteenth century confirmed the desire to discover the traces of a glorious past that Baroque intervention had silenced, under a uniform space treatment. Exactly two centuries ago, the recovery of these traces meant the start of the last major phase in the transformation of the building: the restoration. The building was considered subject to conserve and since then, efforts focused on the recovery of latent Umayyad architecture. Thus, the practice of restoration as a discipline was absolutely influenced by Archaeology as the only source of knowledge. Interventions were seeking the original as the way to recover that past in a space and formal way, concentrating on essential sites of the building. The statement as a national monument in 1882 prompted the State take charge of its maintenance and preservation, replacing to the nineteenth century Bishops and Cabildos, which had a very advanced understanding for that time. The arrival of the architect Velazquez Bosco in the last decades of the nineteenth century involved a momentous change in the history of the building, since he received a building with significant damage and he achieved the foundations of the building that we can see today. Efforts to a material and space recover returned the Mosque-Cathedral to its original image, accurately reproducing the models found in archaeological explorations. The arrival of Antonio Florez after Velazquez’s death involved the translation of discipline debate, which was developed in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Florez tried a new understanding of the intervention, considering conservation as a priority action. In 1926, the State reformed the way in which heritage was attended, creating a zones system with a few architects in charge of them. The existence of a new legislative framework, underpinned this new conservative vision, supported by the Athens Charter of 1931. This scientific restoration model fleeing from intervention in style and it appreciated the need to intervene in the most concise way, with a distinct language based on the data offered by Archaeology. Therefore, it continued with the appraisement of the building as a historical document, seeking in this case a differentiated image of intervention, against Velazquez mimetic attitude. It is remarkable the way in which the historian Manuel Gomez-Moreno influenced several generations of architects, archaeologists and historians, both in the scientific understanding of the restoration and the administrative structure. The work of Jose Maria Rodriguez Cano first and then Felix Hernandez was theoretically influenced by the Gomez-Moreno’s method, although in many respects their work did not represent a great difference to Velazquez Bosco. The search of the original returned to recur, but the economic charge of maintaining such a large building led to the non-realization of many of the most ambitious projects. This obsessive search for the original image of the building had its last and anachronistic stage with the intervention of the Department of Architecture at 70’s. However, the exhaustion of the scientific model had already led to a new scenario at European level, which crystallized in the Venice Charter of 1964 and a new definition of the object to be preserved beyond the value as a historical document. This new theoretical position had its translation to Spanish restaurateur model in the last quarter of the twentieth century, coinciding with the Transition. The architect Dionisio Hernandez Gil defended a different interpretation from archaeologists and historians, that had prevailed throughout the century. According to Hernandez Gil, the problems of intervention should focus primarily as architectural issues, abandoning the idea that they could only be determined by specialist. This theoretical conviction was defended from the new administration and led to the use of particularized criteria, from a multifocal analysis of each situation. And this change had its translation to the Mosque with the practice of Gabriel Ruiz Cabrero and Gabriel Rebollo. Consistent with this new perspective, they accepted the receiving building, replacing the search on original page for acceptance of all historical pages and respecting the constructive techniques of the past. The search for specific solutions from the architectural object meant the renewed attention to the powerful formal-constructive structure as the origin of all thought. Consider the Mosque-Cathedral as Architecture, involved the attention to all kinds of factors in addition to the historical, as a means to preserve its authenticity. This thesis aims to demonstrate that the practice of restoration in the Mosque-Cathedral throughout the twentieth century has evolved from the search of the original to the search for the authentic, reflecting a vision based on the archaeological against a renewed more complete architectural vision, including the above. Consideration of intervention in this building as another page in its history and not the last one, means the reissue of an own mechanism and a new impetus in that continuous transformation process.

Paleoindian large mammal hunters on the plains of North America

From ≈11,200 to 8,000 years ago, the Great Plains of North America were populated by small Paleoindian hunting groups with well developed weaponry and the expertise to successfully hunt large mammals, especially mammoths and bison. Mammoths became extinct on the Plains by 11,000 years ago, and, although paleoecological conditions were worsening, their demise may have been hastened by human predation. After this, the main target of the Plains Paleoindian hunters consisted of subspecies of bison, Bison antiquus and Bison occidentalis. As bison populations gradually diminished, apparently because of worsening ecological conditions, by ≈8,000 years ago, human subsistence was forced into a greater dependence on small animal and plant foods. Human paleoecology studies of the Paleoindian time period rely heavily on multidisciplinary efforts. Geomorphologists, botanists, soil scientists, palynologists, biologists, and other specialists aid archaeologists in data recovery and analysis, although, with few exceptions, their contributions are derived from the fringes rather than the mainstream of their disciplines.

Interisland and interarchipelago transfer of stone tools in prehistoric Polynesia.

Tracing interisland and interarchipelago movements of people and artifacts in prehistoric Polynesia has posed a challenge to archaeologists due to the lack of pottery and obsidian, two materials most readily used in studies of prehistoric trade or exchange. Here we report the application of nondestructive energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis to the sourcing of Polynesian artifacts made from basalt, one of the most ubiquitous materials in Polynesian archaeological sites. We have compared excavated and surface-collected basalt adzes and adze flakes from two sites in Samoa (site AS-13-1) and the Cook Islands (site MAN-44), with source basalts from known prehistoric quarries in these archipelagoes. In both cases, we are able to demonstrate the importing of basalt adzes from Tutuila Island, a distance of 100 km to Ofu Island, and of 1600 km to Mangaia Island. These findings are of considerable significance for Polynesian prehistory, as they demonstrate the movement of objects not only between islands in the same group (where communities were culturally and linguistically related) but also between distant island groups. Further applications of EDXRF analysis should greatly aid archaeologists in their efforts to reconstruct ancient trade and exchange networks, not only in Polynesia but also in other regions where basalt was a major material for artifact production.

Wrestling With Tradition: Japanese Activities at Amache, a World War II Incarceration Facility

I employ archaeological analyses, archival research, and oral histories to investigate traditional Japanese practices that were performed at Amache, a World War II Japanese American incarceration facility. I argue that these inter-generational practices helped to bridge a cultural gap that existed between several generations of Japanese Americans. For many incarcerated Japanese Americans, their first exposure to many traditional activities occurred during incarceration. The resulting social environment incorporated aspects of Japanese, Japanese American, and mainstream American influences, all of which were adapted to conditions during incarceration. Similarly, archaeological analyses allow for the investigation of traditional practice features. These provide evidence regarding the significance of the adapted landscape at Amache. Evidence of these practices suggests Amache internees had both a strong desire to maintain and celebrate these aspects of their Japanese heritage but they also incorporated non-traditional elements that reflected the unique living conditions during incarceration. Incarceration, I argue, created an environment in which a unique internee consciousness was formed in which the use of traditional practices was a focal point. The physical remains of traditional practices allow archaeologists to determine aspects of this newly formed consciousness that are not readily apparent in historical documentation.