Millennium development goals: progress towards the right to health in Latin america and the Caribbean

Includes bibliography

Employment, growth and reforms in Jamaica

Includes bibliography

The employment situation in Latin America and the Caribbean: Employment formalization and labour income distribution

The employment situation in Latin America and the Caribbean is a twice-yearly report prepared jointly by the Economic Development Division of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the Subregional Office for the South Cone of Latin America of the International Labour Organization (ILO). Strong job creation and wage gains have proved to be a key factors in reducing poverty —quite substantially— in our region over the past decade. Together with the implementation of innovative social policies, the narrowing of wage gaps has played a fundamental role in reducing inequality between households. The success of these two processes —reducing poverty and inequality— count among the most important achievements of this period. In the past few years, however, the fight against poverty has noticeably lost momentum,1 showing the extent to which job creation has been hit by the recent economic slowdown.

The employment situation in Latin America and the Caribbean: Labour productivity and distribution issues

Although the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean grew more slowly in 2011 than in 2010, there were some improvements on the employment front. Workers benefited from the region’s satisfactory economic performance in an increasingly complex international setting. The unemployment rate fell from 7.3% in 2010 to 6.7% in 2011 thanks to a halfpercentage- point gain in the urban employment rate. Both rates are at levels that have not been seen for a long time. The proportion of formal jobs with social benefits rose as well, and underemployment declined. The average wage and the minimum wage both increased in real terms, albeit only moderately. Economic performance and the employment situation varied widely among the subregions. The unemployment rate dropped by 0.6 percentage points in South America but 0.4 percentage points in the countries of the northern part of Latin America. In the countries of the Caribbean, the employment rate was up by 0.2 percentage points. The data show that substantial labour market gaps and serious labour-market insertion issues remain. This is especially the case for women and young people, for whom unemployment rates and other labour indicators are still unfavourable. The second part of this report looks at whether the fruits of economic growth and rising productivity have been distributed equitably between workers and companies. Between 2002 and 2008 (the most recent expansionary economic cycle), wages as a percentage of GDP fell in 13 of the 21 countries of the region for which data are available and rose in just 8. This points to redistribution that is unfavourable to workers, which is worrying in a region which already has the most unequal distribution of income in the world. Underlying this trend is the fact that, worldwide, wages have grown less than productivity. Beyond the ethical dimension of this issue, it jeopardizes the social and economic sustainability of growth. For example, one of the root causes of the recent financial crisis was that households in the United States responded to declining wage income by borrowing more to pay for consumption and housing. This turned out to be unsustainable in the long run. Over time, it undermines the labour market’s contribution to the efficient allocation of resources and its distributive function, too, with negative consequences for democratic governance. Among the triggers of this distributive worsening most often cited in the global debate are market deregulation and its impact on financial globalization, technological change that favours capital over labour, and the weakening of labour institutions. What is needed here is a public policy effort to help keep wage increases from lagging behind increases in productivity. Some countries of the region, especially in South America, saw promising developments during the second half of the 2000s in the form of a positive trend reversal in wages as a percentage of GDP. One example is Brazil, where a minimum wage policy tailored to the dynamics of the domestic market is considered to be one of the factors behind an upturn in the wage share of GDP. The region needs to grow more and better. Productivity must grow at a steady pace, to serve as the basis for sustained improvements in the well-being of the populace and to narrow the gap between the economies of Latin America and the Caribbean and the more advanced economies. And inequality must be decreased; this could be achieved by closing the productivity gap between upgraded companies and the many firms whose productivity is low. As set out in this report, the region made some progress between 2002 and 2010, with labour productivity rising at the rate of 1.5% a year. But this progress falls short of that seen in other regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa (2.1%) and, above all, East Asia (8.3%, not counting Japan and the Republic of Korea). Moreover, in many of the countries of the region these gains have not been distributed equitably. Therein lies a dual challenge that must be addressed: continue to increase productivity while enhancing the mechanisms for distributing gains in a way that will encourage investment and boost worker and household income. The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimate that the pace of economic growth in the region will be slightly slower in 2012 than in 2011, in a global economic scenario marked by the cooling of several of the main economic engines and a high degree of uncertainty concerning, above all, prospects for the euro zone. The region is expected to continue to hold up well to this worsening scenario, thanks to policies that leveraged more favourable conditions in the past. This will be felt in the labour markets, as well, so expectations are that unemployment will edge down by as much as two tenths of a decimal point.

The employment situation in Latin America and the Caribbean: Crisis in the labour markets and countercyclical responses

As predicted in the first bulletin, produced jointly by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) and the International Labour Organization (ILO), the impact of the economic crisis continued to be felt in Latin America and the Caribbean during the second quarter of 2009. Regional exports of goods and services contracted in response to sluggish demand on international markets, while remittances and foreign direct investment flows continued to fall, credit lost its buoyancy and the total wage bill diminished, owing mainly to job losses. As a result, the growth forecasts of many countries had to be adjusted downwards. Since the end of 2008, the countries of the region had started to implement countercyclical policies —albeit with significant differences— in an effort to use public spending to counter flagging investment and consumer-spending levels and boost aggregate demand. In this second bulletin, ECLAC and ILO show how the impact of the crisis has deepened in labour markets in the region in the first half of the year and examine existing options and the outcome of public-infrastructure and emergency employment programmes designed to mitigate the impact of the crisis on the labour market. The unemployment rate has risen in practically all countries compared with the previous year and this situation worsened further in the second quarter, when urban unemployment exceeded the rate of the corresponding period in 2008 by 1 percentage point (to stand at 8.5%, up from 7.5%), while in the first quarter, the variation was 0.6 of a percentage point. Labour indicators also point to an increase in informality, a decline in employment with social protection and a decrease in full-time employment. Labour-market trends observed in the first half-year, together with the forecast for a 1.9% decline in regional GDP in 2009, suggest that the average annual rate of urban unemployment in the region will be close to 8.5%. This forecast is slightly less pessimistic than the estimate given in the first bulletin; this is attributable to the fall in the participation rate in the first half-year to levels that are expected to remain low for the rest of the year. Without this reduction in the labour supply, due largely to the “discouragement effect”, the annual average urban unemployment rate would stand at between 8.8% and 8.9%. Thus, the open urban unemployment figure would increase by 2.5 million and if the “discouraged job-seekers” are included, then the number of additional persons not finding a niche in the urban labour market would climb to 3.2 million. In the region, as in the rest of the world, there are signs that the crisis may have reached bottom in the middle of the year. In many countries, production levels have ceased their decline and there are indications of an incipient recovery leading to cautious optimism that there may be a moderate upturn in labour markets in the fourth quarter. The pace of recovery will vary from one country to the next and is expected to be gradual at best. Even with the return to a growth path, there should be no illusion that the labour problems will immediately disappear. First, the recovery in employment is expected to lag behind the upturn in economic activity. Second, since economic growth is likely to remain moderate in the short term and well below the rates recorded between late 2003 and mid-2008, demand for labour and consequently the generation of good-quality jobs will continue to be weak. Thus, countries should not relax their efforts to defend and create decent jobs, but rather should take steps to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of available instruments. In this way, the region will be in a better position not only to confront the challenges of economic recovery, but also to strengthen the foundations for social inclusion and for advancing under more favourable conditions towards fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals.

Job Matching and Wage Growth in the U.S. and Germany

This paper examines the contribution of job matching to wage growth in the U.S. and Germany using data drawn from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the German Socio-Economic Panel from 1984 through 1992. Using a symmetrical set of variables and data handling procedures, real wage growth is found to be higher in the U.S. than in Germany during this period. Also, using two different estimators, job matches are found to enhance wage growth in the U.S. and retard it in Germany. The relationship of general skills to employment in each country appears responsible for this result.

Las formas del salario en la agricultura pampeana : Su rol en el disciplinamiento, el aumento de la productividad y el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo

Las transformaciones socio-económicas, políticas y gremiales acaecidas a fines de los '70 inauguraron un período desfavorable para las condiciones de trabajo de los obreros agrícolas. Se desarrolló una tendencia hacia la disminución de los tiempos requeridos por cada tarea, la discontinuación del proceso productivo, la estacionalización de la demanda de empleo y una mayor especialización de la fuerza de trabajo. La fragmentación extrema del proceso productivo derivó así en el astillamiento del ciclo laboral de los trabajadores en términos de ingresos y de empleadores. En este contexto, fueron logrando imponerse y naturalizarse distintas formas y niveles de remuneración para cada una de las tareas agrícolas, aun en los casos en que un trabajador las realizara todas para un mismo patrón como peón permanente, y singularmente en los casos de los obreros temporarios que se enfrentan a distintos empleadores para desarrollar cada una de las labores con las que construyen su ciclo laboral. Nos proponemos analizar el rol que la combinación de estas formas y niveles salariales ha venido cumpliendo para el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo agrícola en su conjunto, así como en su estímulo a una mayor productividad y en la frustración de conflictos abiertos o a gran escala entre esta fracción de la clase obrera rural y sus patrones, a pesar de las condiciones de trabajo desfavorables que verificamos en este estudio

Estimación y estructura de los ingresos de familias mapuches rurales de zonas periurbanas de Temuco, Chile

Hasta mediados del siglo XX, las familias campesinas mapuches obtenían la mayor parte de sus ingresos de la agricultura. Hoy las fuentes de ingresos se han diversificado, incorporando salarios, transferencias gubernamentales y actividades no agrarias. Con datos aportados por una encuesta de ingresos, se analizan las estrategias de generación de ingresos de familias mapuches localizadas en zonas peri-urbanas de la comuna de Temuco, relacionando la estructura de ingresos con características de las familias y de las fincas. Los resultados muestran la importancia que aún tiene la agricultura en familias cuya fuerza de trabajo sólo logra insertarse en empleos temporales de bajos salarios

Estimación y estructura de los ingresos de familias mapuches rurales de zonas periurbanas de Temuco, Chile

Hasta mediados del siglo XX, las familias campesinas mapuches obtenían la mayor parte de sus ingresos de la agricultura. Hoy las fuentes de ingresos se han diversificado, incorporando salarios, transferencias gubernamentales y actividades no agrarias. Con datos aportados por una encuesta de ingresos, se analizan las estrategias de generación de ingresos de familias mapuches localizadas en zonas peri-urbanas de la comuna de Temuco, relacionando la estructura de ingresos con características de las familias y de las fincas. Los resultados muestran la importancia que aún tiene la agricultura en familias cuya fuerza de trabajo sólo logra insertarse en empleos temporales de bajos salarios

Las formas del salario en la agricultura pampeana : Su rol en el disciplinamiento, el aumento de la productividad y el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo

Las transformaciones socio-económicas, políticas y gremiales acaecidas a fines de los '70 inauguraron un período desfavorable para las condiciones de trabajo de los obreros agrícolas. Se desarrolló una tendencia hacia la disminución de los tiempos requeridos por cada tarea, la discontinuación del proceso productivo, la estacionalización de la demanda de empleo y una mayor especialización de la fuerza de trabajo. La fragmentación extrema del proceso productivo derivó así en el astillamiento del ciclo laboral de los trabajadores en términos de ingresos y de empleadores. En este contexto, fueron logrando imponerse y naturalizarse distintas formas y niveles de remuneración para cada una de las tareas agrícolas, aun en los casos en que un trabajador las realizara todas para un mismo patrón como peón permanente, y singularmente en los casos de los obreros temporarios que se enfrentan a distintos empleadores para desarrollar cada una de las labores con las que construyen su ciclo laboral. Nos proponemos analizar el rol que la combinación de estas formas y niveles salariales ha venido cumpliendo para el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo agrícola en su conjunto, así como en su estímulo a una mayor productividad y en la frustración de conflictos abiertos o a gran escala entre esta fracción de la clase obrera rural y sus patrones, a pesar de las condiciones de trabajo desfavorables que verificamos en este estudio

Estimación y estructura de los ingresos de familias mapuches rurales de zonas periurbanas de Temuco, Chile

Hasta mediados del siglo XX, las familias campesinas mapuches obtenían la mayor parte de sus ingresos de la agricultura. Hoy las fuentes de ingresos se han diversificado, incorporando salarios, transferencias gubernamentales y actividades no agrarias. Con datos aportados por una encuesta de ingresos, se analizan las estrategias de generación de ingresos de familias mapuches localizadas en zonas peri-urbanas de la comuna de Temuco, relacionando la estructura de ingresos con características de las familias y de las fincas. Los resultados muestran la importancia que aún tiene la agricultura en familias cuya fuerza de trabajo sólo logra insertarse en empleos temporales de bajos salarios

Las formas del salario en la agricultura pampeana : Su rol en el disciplinamiento, el aumento de la productividad y el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo

Las transformaciones socio-económicas, políticas y gremiales acaecidas a fines de los '70 inauguraron un período desfavorable para las condiciones de trabajo de los obreros agrícolas. Se desarrolló una tendencia hacia la disminución de los tiempos requeridos por cada tarea, la discontinuación del proceso productivo, la estacionalización de la demanda de empleo y una mayor especialización de la fuerza de trabajo. La fragmentación extrema del proceso productivo derivó así en el astillamiento del ciclo laboral de los trabajadores en términos de ingresos y de empleadores. En este contexto, fueron logrando imponerse y naturalizarse distintas formas y niveles de remuneración para cada una de las tareas agrícolas, aun en los casos en que un trabajador las realizara todas para un mismo patrón como peón permanente, y singularmente en los casos de los obreros temporarios que se enfrentan a distintos empleadores para desarrollar cada una de las labores con las que construyen su ciclo laboral. Nos proponemos analizar el rol que la combinación de estas formas y niveles salariales ha venido cumpliendo para el abaratamiento de la fuerza de trabajo agrícola en su conjunto, así como en su estímulo a una mayor productividad y en la frustración de conflictos abiertos o a gran escala entre esta fracción de la clase obrera rural y sus patrones, a pesar de las condiciones de trabajo desfavorables que verificamos en este estudio

Firm dynamics in the Cambodian garment industry: firm turnover, productivity growth, and wage profile under trade liberalization

The international garment trade was liberalized in 2005 following the termination of the MFA (Multifibre Arrangement) and ever since then, price competition has intensified. Employing a unique firm dataset collected by the authors, this paper examines the changes in the performance of Cambodian garment firms between 2002/03 and 2008/09. During the period concerned, frequent firm turnover led to an improvement of the industry’s productivity, and the study found that the average total-factor productivity (TFP) of new entrants was substantially higher than that of exiting firms. Furthermore, we observed that thanks to productivity growth, an improvement in workers’ welfare, including a rise in the relative wages of the low-skilled, was taking place. These industrial dynamics differ considerably from those indicated by the “race to the bottom” argument as applied to labor-intensive industrialization in low income countries.

Skill sorting, inter-industry skill wage premium, and production chains: evidence from India 1999-2000

This paper proposes a mechanism that links industry’s technological characteristics (i.e. quality of non-labor inputs, which is proxied by the length of industry production chains), industry-specific skill wage premium, and skill sorting across industries. It is hypothesized that high-skilled workers are sorted into industries where they can receive a higher skill wage premium, by working with better quality non-labor input. The quality of non-labor inputs is assumed to be worse in industries with longer production chains due to the increased involvement of low-skilled labor and poor infrastructure over the sequential production. By examining Indian wage and employment data for 1999-2000, empirical evidence to support this mechanism can be obtained: First, the skill wage premium is lower [higher] in industries with longer [shorter] production chains. Second, the skill wage premium is lower [higher] in industries with a higher [lower] proportion of low-skilled workers producing inputs outside their own industry. Third, the proportion of high-skilled workers is larger in industries with shorter production chains and lower ratio of low-skilled labor involved, i.e., a skill sorting trend can be observed.

ANALISANDO A RELAÇÃO DOS VOLUMES DE EXPORTAÇÃO E DE IMPORTAÇÃO, PIB, TAXAS DE CÂMBIO E INFLAÇÃO NO PERÍODO DE 2004 A 2014.

Esta dissertação visa deslumbrar uma análise macroeconômica do Brasil, especialmente no que se refere à relação dos índices mensais dos volumes das exportações e das importações com os volumes mensais do PIB, da Taxa SELIC e as Taxas de Câmbio, conforme dados coletados no período de janeiro de 2004 a dezembro de 2014, através de pesquisa literária referente aos históricos sobre cada conceito envolvido no âmbito da macroeconomia das varáveis estudadas. Foi realizado um estudo de caso embasado em dados de sites governamentais, no período delimitado, empregando-se o método de regressão linear, com base na Teoria da correlação de Pearson, demonstrando os resultados obtidos no período do estudo para as varáveis estudadas. Desta maneira, conseguiu-se estudar e analisar como as variáveis dependentes (resposta): volume das exportações e volume das importações estão relacionadas com as varáveis independentes (explicativas): PIB, Taxa Selic e taxa de Câmbio. Os resultados apurados no presente estudo permitem identificar que existe correlação moderada e negativa, quando analisadas a Taxa Selic e a Taxa de Câmbio com os volumes das exportações e das importações, enquanto o PIB apresenta correlação forte e positiva na análise com os volumes das exportações e das importações