Behavioral ontogeny in larvae and early juveniles of the giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis) (Pisces: Carangidae)

Behavior of young (8−18 mm SL) giant trevally (Caranx ignobilis), a large coral-reef−associated predator, was observed in the laboratory and the ocean. Size was a better predictor of swimming speed and endurance than was age. Critical speed increased with size from 12 to 40 cm/s at 2.7 cm/s for each mm increase in size. Mean scaled critical speed was 19 body lengths/s and was not size related. Swimming speed in the ocean was 4 to 20 cm/s (about half of critical speed) and varied among areas, but within each area, it increased at 2 cm/s for each mm increase in size. Swimming endurance in the laboratory increased from 5 to 40 km at 5 km for each mm increase in size. Vertical distribution changed ontogenetically: larvae swam shallower, but more variably, and then deeper with growth. Two-thirds of individuals swam directionally with no ontogenetic increase in orientation precision. Larvae swam offshore off open coasts, but not in a bay. In situ observations of C. ignobilis feeding, interacting with pelagic animals, and reacting to reefs are reported. Manusc

Comparative growth performance of jack mackerels of the genus Trachurus with emphasis on T. symmetricus murphyi in Chile

This contribution presents von Bertalanffy growth parameter estimates for species/stocks of jack mackerels of the genus Trachurus from around the world, and compares them with growth parameters for T. symmetricus murphyi caught off central-Chile (33 super(o)S-39 super(o)S). It is found that Trachurus stocks inhabiting upwelling areas such as the Humboldt and Benguela current systems grow better than their ecological equivalents in temperate waters, such as the North Sea. The von Bertalanffy growth paramters estimated from Chilean horse mackerel are: FL = 65.2 cm (TL = 71.6 cm) and K = 0.138 year super(-1).

Population parameters of 'corvina' (Plagioscion squamosissimus) in the Barra Bonita Reservoir, Brazil

Estimates for the growth parameters (L sub( infinity ) and K) mortality coefficients (Z,M and F) and exploitation rate (E) for the sciaenid Plagioscion squamosissimus are presented. The following results were obtained: 1) for male: L sub( arrow right )=44.2 cm, K=0.30 yr super(1), Z=0.82 yr super(1), M=0.66 yr super(1), F=0.16 yr super(1), and E=0.20; and 2) for females: L sub( arrow right )=68.4, K=0.22 yr super(1), Z=0.91 yr super(1), M=0.47 yr super(1), F=0.44 yr super(1) and E=0.49. Females are more heavily fished than males. Artisanal fishing carried out with gillnets, is mainly directed toward the young section of the population and individuals reproducing for the first time.

Interactions Between Platform Terminal Transmitters and Turtle Excluder Devices

Satellite telemetry is a common tool for examining sea turtle movements, and many research programs have successfully tracked adults. Relatively short satellite track durations recorded for juvenile Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempii, in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico raised questions regarding premature transmission loss. We examined interactions between juvenile sea turtles outfitted with platform terminal transmitters (PTT’s) and turtle excluder devices (TED’s) and the potential for transmission loss due to this interaction. A pilot study was conducted with eight 34-month-old, captive-reared loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta; a larger trial the following year used twenty 34-month-olds. Half of the turtles in each trial were outfitted with dummy PTT’s (8×4×2 cm), and all turtles were sent through a trawl equipped with a bottom-opening Super-Shooter TED. No apparent damage was sustained by any PTT, but four of five PTT-outfitted loggerheads encountering the TED carapace-first exhibited increased escape times when the PTT wedged between the TED deflector bars (10.2 cm apart). Overall, 15 loggerheads (54%) impacted the TED carapace-first. Attachment of PTT’s to smaller sea turtles may slow or, in worst cases, inhibit escape from TED’s. Likewise, loose or poorly secured PTT’s could impede escape or be shed during such an interaction. Researchers tracking small turtles in or near regions with trawling activity should consider PTT size and shape and the combined PTT/adhesive profile to minimize potentially detrimental interactions with TED’s.

Aplicação da técnica simulated annealing na investigação da ciclagem de nitrogênio na inteface água-sedimento

Neste trabalho é apresentado a aplicação de um método de otimização a fim de estimar parâmetros que normalmente estão presentes na modelagem matemática da dinâmica de espécies químicas na interface água-sedimento. O Problema Direto aqui consistiu na simulação das concentrações das espécies orgânicas e inorgânicas (amônia e nitrato) de nitrogênio, num ambiente idealizado, o qual foi fracionado em quatro camadas: uma camada de água (1 metro) e três camadas de sedimento (0-1 cm, 1-2 cm e 2-10 cm). O Problema Direto foi resolvido pelo Método de Runge Kutta, tendo sido gerada uma simulação de 50 dias. Na estimativa dos coeficientes de difusão e porosidade foi aplicado o Método Simulated Annealing (SA). A eficiência da estratégia aqui adotada foi avaliada através do confronto entre dados experimentais sintéticos e as concentrações calçadas pela solução do Problema Direto, adotando-se os parâmetros estimados pela SA. O melhor ajuste entre dados experimentais e valores calculados se deu quando o parâmetro estimado foi a porosidade. Com relação à minimização da função objetivo, a estimativa desse parâmetro também foi a que exigiu menor esforço computacional. Após a introdução de um ruído randômico às concentrações das espécies nitrogenadas, a técnica SA não foi capaz de obter uma estimativa satisfatória para o coeficiente de difusão, com exceção da camada 0-1 cm sedimentar. Para outras camadas, erros da ordem de 10 % foram encontrados (para amônia na coluna dágua, pro exemplo). Os resultados mostraram que a metodologia aqui adotada pode ser bastante promissora enquanto ferramenta de gestão de corpos dágua, especialmente daqueles submetidos a um regime de baixa energia, como lagos e lagoas costeiras.

Reproductive biology of Black Anglerfish (Lophius budegassa) in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea

Gonadal morphology and reproductive biology of the Black Anglerfish (Lophius budegassa) were studied by examining 4410 specimens collected between June 2007 and December 2010 in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Ovaries and testes presented traits common among fishes of the order Lophiiformes. Spawning occurred between November and March. Size at first maturity (L50) was 33.4 cm in total length (TL) for males and 48.2 cm TL for females. Black Anglerfish is a total spawner with group-synchronous oocyte development and determinate fecundity. Fecundity values ranged from 87,569 to 398,986 oocytes, and mean potential fecundity was estimated at 78,929 (standard error of the mean [SE] 13,648) oocytes per kilogram of mature female. This study provides the first description of the presence of 2–3 eggs sharing the same chamber and a semicystic type of spermatogenesis for Black Anglerfish. This new information allows for a better understanding of Black Anglerfish reproduction—knowledge that will be useful for the assessment and management of this species.

甜菜组织培养中的形态发生和胚胎发生

用双丰8号的叶和幼胚为材料。以MSS为基本培养基进行组培试验和细胞学、组织学、形态学研究。试验发现不定芽以内起源为主，外起源在外相体大于1cm时，不定芽在气孔和表皮毛的位置产生，而当外植体小于0•5 cm时，外起源的位置效应消失，不定芽在球形愈伤组织状结构上形成。无丝分裂可能是产生变异的主要原因。不定芽启动时与维管束并无必然的联系，但在以后的发育过程中则需要维管束结节的存在为其输送各种营养物质。叶令对不定芽的发生没有影响。不定芽与淀粉的关系也再一次得到证实。 在被试的各种因素中，BA的浓度在诱导不定芽时起主导作用1mg/L时的效果最好，而且作用时间特别重要，只有在叶原基分化前施用BA，该叶在离体培养时才能产生不定芽。直接取自大田的叶不能产生不定芽。Z T、K T, NA A、GA、水解酪蛋白对不定芽的发生无明显的促进作用。5%蔗糖效果最佳。2 cm高的小苗在MS附加1mg/L N A A、 5 0 g/L蔗糖的生根培养基上根系发育良好。并能移栽成活。 首次利用甜莱幼胚在八个组合的培养基上获得松散和致密二种类型的愈伤组织。暗培养时，有利于松散愈伤组织的形成，但器官发生能力低。光培养时，有利于致密愈伤组织的形成，并能产生大量的球形胚状体。活性炭和蔗糖在相对高的浓度下有利于球形胚状体的产生，而2•4—D对愈伤组织的诱导和胚状体的形成都没有促进作用。球形胚瘫在附加BA1mg/L、NAA、0.5m g/L活性炭4g/L.蔗糖5 0 g/L的M S培养基上可以产生成熟胚状体，但大量的球形胚状体变异形成叶状结构叶状结构愈伤组织化后。 能产生大量不定芽和球形胚状体。致密愈伤组织在继代培养过程中仍能以较高的频率产生再生植株。小苗在生根培养基上形成良好报系后能移栽成活。

Fish movement patterns in Virgin Islands National Park, Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument and adjacent waters

NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS)-Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s (CCMA) Biogeography Branch, National Park Service (NPS), US Geological Survey, and the University of Hawaii used acoustic telemetry to quantify spatial patterns and habitat affinities of reef fishes around the island of St. John, US Virgin Islands. The objective of the study was to define the movements of reef fishes among habitats within and between the Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument (VICRNM), the Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS), and Territorial waters surrounding St. John. In order to better understand species’ habitat utilization patterns among management regimes, we deployed an array of hydroacoustic receivers and acoustically tagged reef fishes. Thirty six receivers were deployed in shallow near-shore bays and across the shelf to depths of approximately 30 m. One hundred eighty four individual fishes were tagged representing 19 species from 10 different families with VEMCO V9-2L-R64K transmitters. The array provides fish movement information at fine (e.g., day-night and 100s meters within a bay) to broad spatial and temporal scales (multiple years and 1000s meters across the shelf). The long term multi-year tracking project provides direct evidence of connectivity across habitat types in the seascape and among management units. An important finding for management was that a number of individuals moved among management units (VICRNM, VINP, Territorial waters) and several snapper moved from near-shore protected areas to offshore shelf-edge spawning aggregations. However, most individuals spent the majority of their time with VIIS and VICRNM, with only a few wide-ranging species moving outside the management units. Five species of snappers (Lutjanidae) accounted for 31% of all individuals tagged, followed by three species of grunts (Haemulidae) accounting for an additional 23% of the total. No other family had more than a single species represented in the study. Bluestripe grunt (Haemulon sciurus) comprised 22% of all individuals tagged, followed by lane snappers (Lutjanus synagris) at 21%, bar jack (Carangoides ruber) at 11%, and saucereye porgy (Calamus calamus) at 10%. The largest individual tagged was a 70 cm TL nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum), followed by a 65 cm mutton snapper (Lutjanus analis), a 47 cm bar jack, and a 41 cm dog snapper (Lutjanus jocu). The smallest individuals tagged were a 19 cm blue tang (Acanthurus coeruleus) and a 19.2 cm doctorfish (Acanthurus chirurgus). Of the 40 bluestriped grunt acoustically tagged, 73% were detected on the receiver array. The average days at large (DAL) was 249 (just over 8 months), with one individual detected for 930 days (over two and a half years). Lane snapper were the next most abundant species tagged (N = 38) with 89% detected on the array. The average days at large (DAL) was 221 with one individual detected for 351 days. Seventy-one percent of the bar jacks (N = 21) were detected on the array with the average DALs at 47 days. All of the mutton snapper (N = 12) were detected on the array with an average DAL of 273 and the longest at 784. The average maximum distance travelled (MDT) was ca. 2 km with large variations among species. Grunts, snappers, jacks, and porgies showed the greatest movements. Among all individuals across species, there was a positive and significant correlation between size of individuals and MDT and between DAL and MDT.

Southern California's megaflood event of ca. 1605 AD linked to large-scale atmospheric forcing

A distinct, 1- to 2-cm-thick flood deposit found in Santa Barbara Basin with a varve-date of 1605 AD ± 5 years testifies to an intensity of precipitation that remains unmatched for later periods when historical or instrumental records can be compared against the varve record. The 1605 AD ± 5 event correlates well with Enzel's (1992) finding of a Silver Lake playa perennial lake at the terminus of the Mojave River (carbon-14-dated 1560 AD ± 90 years), in relative proximity to the rainfall catchment area draining into Santa Barbara Basin. According to Enzel, such a persistent flooding of the Silver Lake playa occurred only once during the last 3,500 years and required a sequence of floods, each comparable in magnitude to the largest floods in the modern record. To gain confidence in dating of the 1605 AD ± 5 event, we compare Southern California's sedimentary evidence against historical reports and multi-proxy time-series that indicate unusual climatic events or are sensitive to changes in large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns. The emerging pattern supports previous suggestions that the first decade of the 17th century was marked by a rapid cooling of the Northern Hemisphere, with some indications for global coverage. A burst of volcanism and the occurrence of El Nino seem to have contributed to the severity of the events. The synopsis of the 1605 AD ± 5 years flood deposit in Santa Barbara Basin, the substantial freshwater body at Silver Lake playa, and much additional paleoclimatic, global evidence testifies for an equatorward shift of global wind patterns as the world experienced an interval of rapid, intense, and widespread cooling.

Reproductive biology of male franciscanas (Pontoporia blainvillei) (Mammalia: Cetacea) from Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil

The reproductive biology of male franciscanas (Pontoporia blainvillei), based on 121 individuals collected in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil, was studied. Estimates on age, length, and weight at attainment of sexual maturity are presented. Data on the reproductive seasonality and on the relationship between some testicular characteristics and age, size, and maturity status are provided. Sexual maturity was assessed by histological examination of the testes. Seasonality was determined by changes in relative and total testis weight, and in seminiferous tubule diameters. Testis weight, testicular index of maturity, and seminiferous tubule diameters were reliable indicators of sexual maturity, whereas testis length, age, length, and weight of the dolphin were not. Sexual maturity was estimated to be attained at 3.6 years (CI 95% =2.7–4.5) with the DeMaster method and 3.0 years with the logistic equation. Length and weight at attainment of sexual maturity were 128.2 cm (CI 95%=125.3–131.1 cm) and 26.4 kg (CI 95% =24.7–28.1 kg), respectively. It could not be verified that there was any seasonal change in the testis weight and in the seminiferous tubule diameters in mature males. It is suggested that at least some mature males may remain reproductively active throughout the year. The extremely low relative testis weight indicates that sperm competition does not occur in the species. On the other hand, the absence of secondary sexual characteristics, the reversed sexual size dimorphism, and the small number of scars from intrassexual combats in males reinforce the hypothesis that male combats for female reproductive access may be rare for franciscana. It is hypothesized that P. blainvillei form temporary pairs (one male copulating with only one female) during the reproductive period.

Age and growth of Hawaiian seaturtles (Chelonia mydas): an analysis based on skeletochronology

Skeletochronological data on growth changes in humerus diameter were used to estimate the age of Hawaiian green seaturtles ranging from 28.7 to 96.0 cm straight carapace length. Two age estimation methods, correction factor and spline integration, were compared, giving age estimates ranging from 4.1 to 34.6 and from 3.3 to 49.4 yr, respectively, for the sample data. Mean growth rates of Hawaiian green seaturtles are 4–5 cm/yr in early juveniles, decline to a relatively constant rate of about 2 cm/yr by age 10 yr, then decline again to less than 1 cm/yr as turtles near age 30 yr. On average, age estimates from the two techniques differed by just a few years for juvenile turtles, but by wider margins for mature turtles. The spline-integration method models the curvilinear relationship between humerus diameter and the width of periosteal growth increments within the humerus, and offers several advantages over the correction-factor approach.

药蒲公英（Taraxacum officinale weber）耐盐变异体的筛选及其耐盐性分析研究

以药蒲公英（Taraxacum officinale Weber）叶片外植体为材料诱导愈伤组织。以NaCl作为选择因子，从愈伤组织直接筛选。在选择培养基上，大部分愈伤组织褐化死亡，在一些褐化死亡的愈伤组织周围有少量新的细胞团生长，挑选生长存活状况好的细胞团转接到新鲜培养基上，每3周继代一次，经3个月继代筛选获得了耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英细胞团。以普通愈伤为对照，发现随着NaCl浓度的升高，耐盐愈伤的相对生长率下降但显著高于对照;且随着盐胁迫处理时间的延长持续升高，而普通愈伤对照几乎停止生长，说明耐盐愈伤具有相对稳定的耐盐性。在蛋白水平上，耐盐愈伤与对照愈伤差异明显，SDS-PAGE分析显示：耐盐愈伤比对照多出一条34 KD大小的蛋白带，且30 KD，18 KD左右的蛋白带明显上调。相同处理条件下耐盐愈伤脯氨酸的增加幅度高于对照。盐胁迫条件下，耐盐愈伤的超氧化物歧化酶（SOD）、过氧化物酶（POD）和过氧化氢酶（CAT）活性明显高于对照，且随着处理时间的延长和盐浓度的增加呈现升高的趋势，而对照则呈现先升高后下降的趋势。1.5% NaCl处理前后，耐盐愈伤的总黄酮含量显著高于对照。结果说明耐盐愈伤一方面通过积累蛋白和其他小分子有机溶质的方式调节其渗透平衡，另一方面还可通过提高抗氧化能力降低盐分造成的次级伤害。 将耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英愈伤组织接种在分化培养基上分化出芽，之后将再生芽转接到生根培养基中进行生根培养，经4个月得到了12株耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生植株。与野生型相比，耐盐植株叶片宽大、叶柄粗短、叶表面覆盖白色细毛，根粗壮较短，花茎中部具有2 cm左右的苞叶。RAPD和SDS-PAGE检测表明，耐盐植株与对照植株在DNA及蛋白水平上均存在明显差异。1.5% NaCl处理后，与普通再生植株相比，耐盐株系的抗氧化酶活性明显提高，脯氨酸含量上升幅度更为显著，而丙二醛含量降低，其主要药用成分黄酮的含量显著增加。这些结果说明耐盐植株的抗氧化防御能力明显增强。以上结果表明耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生植株为耐1.5% NaCl药蒲公英变异体，这些耐盐变异体有望成为抗盐耐海水蔬菜家族的新成员。同时，这些耐盐变异体植株比普通植株具有更高的医用商业价值。耐1.5% NaCl的药蒲公英再生变异体遗传稳定性的研究正在进行中。

浑善达克沙地几种优势植物的生态适应

浑善达克沙地是我国北方干旱半干旱区的主要沙地和严重荒漠化地区之一。同时也是我国内陆沙尘的主要源区之一。研究当地植物对沙地环境的适应方式有助于当地的荒漠化治理，加快生态环境恢复。本文应用（温室和野外）实验生态学方法研究了沙地植物对水分、沙埋和养分异质性环境的生态适应对策。 浑善达克沙地属于半干旱区域。在一次降雨过后，适合植物生长的湿沙层逐渐下降，或者说不适合植物生长的干沙层逐渐加厚。为了能够有效地从沙层中获得水分，植物的根系的伸长的速度必须大于湿沙层下降的速度。因此，当地分布的植物的根系则应该具有相应的形态、生长和生物量投资方面的可塑性。羊柴（Hedysarum laeve Maxim. (Leguminosae) ）是当地的主要半灌木和固沙植物。我们研究了羊柴幼苗对不同土壤含水量和不同模拟降雨量的反应格局，以及移动沙丘生长季节的土壤含水量变动规律。发现，大于3％土壤含水量适合羊柴幼苗生长。最适土壤含水量为12%－20% 。在生长季节早期，羊柴幼苗比较容易在沙丘上定居。如果没有充分的后续降雨的话，萌发后的幼苗在沙丘顶部、落沙坡中部和后部定居比较困难。降雨量越大，根系越深、总根长越大、根系直径越大、侧根越多、根冠比越低。 在干旱半干旱区域的沙地，种子萌发的时间和地点对于植物的定居和存活具有关键作用。通过温室实验，研究了小叶锦鸡儿和羊柴的种子萌发和出苗对不同深度的沙埋的反应，及其与种子大小的关联。结果表明，小叶锦鸡儿和羊柴的种子萌发和出苗对浑善达克沙地的自然生境表现出相似的生态适应。这两个种的种子萌发的适宜温度为10-15ºC, 这是当地春季的平均温度。由于这两个种的种子萌发是光敏感的，所以它们的种子萌发受土壤含水量和光照强度二者之间的平衡调节。2 cm 的较浅沙埋最有利于种子萌发和出苗。种子埋得越深，种子的萌发率和出苗率越低，更多的种子受胁迫休眠保存在土壤中作为种子库。不同大小的种子的不同萌发能力也是一种重要的生态适应，这可以调节种子在合适的时间和合适的沙埋深度萌发和出苗。 冰草（Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn）是浑善达克沙地植物群落中占优势的多年生根茎草本植物之一。种子在合适的地点和时间萌发以及幼苗在合适的地点和时间生长，对于冰草在沙地环境条件下生存和分布具有重要意义。本文研究了浑善达克沙地4-10月份土壤含水量变动情况和冰草种子萌发、出苗和幼苗生长对土壤含水量的响应。结果表明，4月下旬至5月上中旬的土壤含水量对冰草种子萌发、出苗和定居极为关键。控制条件下，冰草种子萌发的最适土壤含水量是12%-20%，出苗以及幼苗生长的最适土壤含水量是12%-16%。当土壤含水量低于3%，冰草种子不能萌发，土壤含水量低于6%时，幼苗不能出土和定居。当土壤含水量达到16%时，冰草幼苗生物量有所下降。在6%-8%的土壤含水量条件下，植株将更多的生物量投资于根的生长。 本文对浑善达克沙地低湿滩地、滩地-风沙沉积过渡区到风沙沉积区的赖草（Leymus secalinus （Georgi） Tzvel.）分株数、地上生物量、土壤水分和养分异质性进行了研究。结果表明，从低湿滩地、滩地-风沙沉积过渡区到风沙沉积区，随着土壤养分的降低，赖草分株数和地上生物量反而增加。赖草的分株数在三种生境中都存在空间自相关。并且，从低湿滩地、过渡区到风沙沉积区空间自相关的变程逐渐增加。地上生物量同样存在空间自相关，但变程以过渡区最大，风沙沉积区最低。土壤水分仅仅在风沙沉积区存在空间自相关。在三种生境条件下，土壤全氮和有机质的空间分布格局相似，都在低湿滩地和过渡区存在空间自相关且变程相似。在风沙沉积区不存在空间自相关。赖草的空间分布格局在低湿滩地为偏离随机适度聚集的分布格局，在过渡区近似于聚居分布，而在风沙沉积区为均匀分布格局。 豆科锦鸡儿属（Caragana ）植物因其可以生物固氮而在草原生态系统当中具有特殊的地位。定量分析小叶锦鸡儿（Caragana microphylla ）灌丛在浑善达克沙地不同生境条件下的分布格局，有助于理解植被与土壤养分循环之间的关系和合理制定退化沙地的恢复对策。本文采用地统计学中的半方差分析和分形分析两种方法研究了浑善达克沙地小叶锦鸡儿灌丛的空间分布格局，分析了不同生境中小叶锦鸡儿灌丛的植被、土壤水分和养分间的相关性。结果表明（1）小叶锦鸡儿灌丛在三种生境条件下（滩地、固定沙丘和半固定沙丘）的盖度、土壤有机质和全氮的空间分布符合球状模型，空间自相关显著;（2）土壤pH值在滩地和固定沙丘的空间分布符合球状模型且空间自相关显著，但在半固定沙丘空间自相关不显著;（3）土壤水分在三种生境中的空间分布都符合线性模型，空间自相关显著。（4）植被的变异尺度（变程）小于各个土壤要素的变异尺度。植被（小叶锦鸡儿灌丛）的分布和形成过程决定了土壤养分的分布和形成过程。当地的豆科植物在养分“沃岛”现象的形成中起了重要作用，合理的利用和布局当地的豆科植物，可以更加有效地补充草地生态系统的养分，从而有利于加快当地生态系统的恢复进程。

毛乌素沙地两种固沙禾草种子萌发和幼苗生长与环境的关系

干旱区和半干旱区生长的植物具有复杂的生存机制，以确保其能够在特定的环境中生存和发展。植物在干旱的荒漠条件下的生存，与其特殊的种子萌发机制密切相关，这种机制能够确保植物在合适的时间与地点进行种子萌发与幼苗生长发育。在植物的生活史中，种子对极端环境具有最大的忍耐力，而萌发的幼苗对环境胁迫的忍耐程度最小。在干旱区生长的植物往往具有特殊的萌发机制使萌发出的幼苗能够度过对外界的敏感期，对于植物的生存具有重要意义。 毛乌素沙地是我国的四大沙地之一，该地区具有水分短缺，蒸发强烈，风沙剧烈和生境异质性高的特征。本文假设生长在这种极端环境中的植物也发展出了“适时适地”的种子萌发和幼苗生长的适应对策。为了验证以上的假设，本文选取毛乌素沙地不同生境中生长的两种优势固沙禾草——流动沙丘上生长的沙鞭(Psammochloa villosa)和固定沙丘上生长的赖草(Leymus secalinus)为研究材料，通过野外调查、温室控制实验和实验室控制实验的方法，从生理生态学的角度探讨这两种植物的种子萌发和幼苗生长过程对沙丘环境的适应对策，主要对比它们在种子休眠、萌发和幼苗早期生长过程中对沙丘生境适应性的异同点。研究结果表明： （1）新成熟的沙鞭和赖草的种子为适应冬季低温而发展出生理性的内生休眠——非深度生理休眠。沙鞭和赖草的种子分别需要经过4周和8周的低温层积处理(3－5ºC)来完全打破休眠。另外，划破种皮或者部分切除胚乳也能够促进种子的萌发，这进一步证明两种植物的种子具有非深度生理休眠。然而，切除胚乳在不同程度上影响它们的幼苗生长。由非深度生理休眠、温度和损伤种皮/胚乳调节的部分萌发机制能够确保两种植物的种子即使在条件适宜的情况下只有部分种子萌发，从而分散植物生存的风险性。 （2）毛乌素沙地的小量降水（无法触发萌发）使种子经常遭受湿润－干燥的交替胁迫过程。种子先在湿润条件下吸涨1d或者2d，然后在室温下干燥0-8天。尽管在经历反复吸涨和自然干燥脱水后仍能够保持萌发能力，沙鞭和赖草种子的萌发特性却发生了不同的变化：和各自的对照相比，沙鞭种子萌发率相同而萌发速率降低;赖草种子的萌发率和萌发速率都降低，部分种子进入休眠状态。沙鞭和赖草萌发出的幼苗可能由于没有后续降雨或者因沙蚀而遭受干燥胁迫，但是其幼苗在生长早期能够忍耐一定程度的干燥，再次湿润后部分幼苗能够恢复生长。沙鞭和赖草幼苗的耐干燥的“极限点”不同：当幼根长度为1 mm时，它们的幼苗忍耐干燥的时间分别是60d和30d;当幼根长度为4 mm时，它们的幼苗忍耐干燥的时间分别是14d和7d。沙鞭和赖草的种子和生长早期的幼苗的耐干燥性特性可能是它们对降雨量和降雨时间都不可预测的沙地生境的生存策略之一。 （3）不同的沙埋深度影响沙鞭和赖草的种子萌发和出苗。这两种植物的种子萌发和出苗都需1－2 cm的浅层沙埋。随着沙埋深度的增加，两种植物的种子萌发率和出苗率逐渐降低，强迫休眠率逐渐升高;萌发率与出苗率和沙埋深度呈负相关关系而休眠率和沙埋深度呈正相关关系。但是，沙鞭种子出苗的最大沙埋深度是8 cm，而赖草的则为4 cm。因强迫休眠而没有萌发的种子对维持一个长期的土壤种子库来说具有生态学优势，这些种子暴露在合适的萌发土壤深度时具有生长出幼苗的潜能。 （4）沙鞭和赖草的种子都具有大小的差异性，种子大小对沙鞭和赖草的种子在不同沙埋深度的出苗具有不同的影响。沙鞭的三种不同大小种子的平均质量分别为小，4.489 ± 0.012 mg (4 – 4.9 mg);中，5.457 ± 0.012 mg (5 – 5.9 mg)和大，6.415 ± 0.011 mg (6 – 6.9 mg)。赖草的两种不同大小种子的平均质量分别为小，3.083 ± 0.026 mg (3 – 3.5 mg)和大3.955 ± 0.028 mg (3.6 – 4.0 mg)。在相同的沙埋深度下，两种植物的大种子的出苗率都显著高于小种子。和小种子相比，两种植物的大种子由于贮藏更多的能量，所以在相同深度的沙埋中具有出苗率更高的生态优势，而大量小种子在沙埋中不能萌发，可以作为种子库保存在沙层中，这样就分散了一次性大量萌发给植物带来的冒险性。 （5）沙鞭和赖草的幼苗在生长过程中会遭受沙埋，其幼苗忍耐沙埋的能力与沙埋的相对深度（沙埋比例）和幼苗年龄有关。沙鞭和赖草幼苗的耐沙埋能力不同：沙鞭的2周龄幼苗可以忍耐达到株高100%的沙埋，而其1周龄幼苗只能忍耐75%的沙埋。赖草的1周龄和2周龄幼苗都只能忍耐75%的沙埋。沙埋之后，沙鞭和赖草幼苗的生物量，根/茎比以及根和茎的长度都受到不同程度的影响。赖草幼苗不能忍耐完全沙埋可能是限制它在流动沙丘上分布的一个原因。 （6）降雨量和降雨频率能够不同程度地影响沙鞭和赖草在不同沙层的萌发和出苗。这两种植物的种子萌发和出苗需要的最小降雨量不同：在一次浇水相当于5 mm降雨量后，沙鞭和赖草种子的萌发率都超过50%;但是使沙鞭和赖草的出苗率能够达到50%的降雨量分别为10 mm和15 mm。沙埋中的沙鞭和赖草种子的出苗对降雨的响应具有以下特征：两种植物种子的出苗随降雨量或者降雨频率的增加而增加;沙鞭的出苗率受到降雨量和降雨频率的显著影响，但是二者交互作用的影响不显著;赖草的出苗率受到降雨量、降雨频率以及二者交互作用的显著影响。 由非深度生理休眠，种子大小，干燥－湿润循环，沙埋和降雨调节的种子萌发和出苗机制确保了自然条件下沙鞭和赖草每次只有少量种子萌发和出苗，从而分散了两种植物在沙丘上的生存风险。 根据沙鞭和赖草在沙丘上的种子萌发和幼苗生长特性，本文为毛乌素沙地通过植物固沙恢复受损的沙地生态系统的种子飞播实践提出了几点建议。

内蒙古草原温度梯度上3个典型群落的能量平衡研究

通量测量点的能量收支总是表现出不平衡，即使在地势平坦、植被分布均一、稀疏植被下垫面的情况下也有约30%的能量失衡状况。能量平衡闭合 (EBC) 问题在验证涡度相关系统质量方面，得到了广泛的关注。实验在内蒙古草原3个地点，通过涡度相关系统附近移动能量平衡系统的测定手段，采用能量平衡余项法和最小二乘 (OLS) 线性回归法，研究了土壤热通量、净辐射及可供能量空间变异对能量平衡闭合的影响。 结果显示，EBC 在三个研究点的平均余项为8~19 W m-2，OLS 斜率为0.83~0.96。EBC 在土壤湿润情况的站点要高于干旱站点。 土壤热通量的空间变异三站点平均为白天48 W m-2 (占同时间 Rn 的13%)，夜间15 W m-2 (34%)，平均29 W m-2 (24%)。通过8个工作站的测量，这个变异会造成9% (从0.93到1.01) 的 OLS 斜率差别。夜间的能量平衡不闭合可以由土壤热通量的空间变异解释。如果在本研究的的三个草原站点上忽略了土壤热通量，则会造成较大的余项 (峰值时110 W m-2) 产生，从而使 OLS 斜率增大23%。特别是通量板埋置在地面以下30 mm处时，上层的土壤热储部分占到全部土壤热通量的50%，这不仅影响到 EBC 的大小，更起到调节土壤热通量与“真实的波形” 相一致的作用。如果该部分热储被忽略掉，EBC 余项会增加60 W m-2，OLS 斜率也会变化 (减少) 9%。用大尺度多点测量与涡度塔附近的小尺度测定相比较，后者表现出稍高的闭合率，即 OLS 斜率增加4%。 相对于土壤热通量，净辐射的空间变异较小，三站点平均为白天17 W m-2 (5%)，夜间7 W m-2 (13%)，平均 12 W m-2 (5%)。可以引起3% (从0.88到0.91) 的 OLS 斜率差异。研究结果还表明，风速校正应该在 Q7.1 净辐射仪中应用，校正后的结果与 CNR1 的结果在白天有吻合较好，但在其它时段仍有较大差异，特别是在夜间，风速校正基本不起作用，使得两种仪器间差异达20 W m-2。比较表明，风速校正可以提高白天 Rn 的6%，仅降低夜间0.3%。因此，无论是用余项法还是用 OLS 线性回归法，在比较使用不同仪器的站点间的闭合状况时 (本研究的结果适用于草地 Q7.1 与 CNR1 间的比较)，可以用9：00-15：00 h 时段的数据进行比较，这样可以避免因使用不同仪器的差异所造成的影响。用该时段的数据进行比较，仪器间的差异余项法小于6 W m-2，OLS 法小于3%。 受可供能量空间变异影响，三个站点平均 EBC 的不确定性为白天66 W m-2 (19%)，夜间23 W m-2 (50%)，平均42 W m-2 (36%);或者改变 OLS 斜率11%。用最大值和最小值来衡量，EBC 最大不确定性，正午时在站点 I、II 和 III 中分别为81，114和91 W m-2。故在探讨能量平衡和能量平衡闭合问题时，必须充分考虑到这种不确定性，否则会产生偏差，或者得出错误结论。 研究还表明，即使考虑到白天所有可供能量的最大不确定性，仍然不能使能量平衡闭合。中午 (12：00 h)，站点 I，II 和 III 仍然有14±15，48±12和47±14 W m-2 的失衡不能够归因于可供能量的空间不确定性。因此，其它影响因素也需进行细致的探讨。 在两站点不同测量深度土壤热通量结果的差异性比较实验中，无论在站点 I 还是 III，均表现出一致的结论，即随通量板布置深度加深，其测量结果会越高，与浅层布置的相比，差别可高达150 W m-2。深层土壤热通量的计算仍是个难题，需进一步研究。 在不同植被结构对净辐射测定影响的实验中发现，随刈割强度增加，一天中大部分时间净辐射均减少。正午依次为413，395和388 W m-2。无论正午还是全天合计，重度刈割地点的净辐射均比不刈割对照处理少6%，而且，在整个生长季也少6%，约合40,000 W m-2。测量高度不同，不同处理间对测定结果影响不同：刈割处理中，由于下垫面较均一，结果相差不显著;而对照则表现出较高的差异，用两配对样本T检验表明差异达到极显著 (P<0.000，9:30-15:00 h data)。当使用不同新旧程度的 domes 时，对净辐射结果会产生明显的影响。新 domes 的测量结果白天明显高，晚上明显低，使用了11个月的旧 domes，峰值时，白天低估25 W m-2，晚上高估10 W m-2。说明该差异在进行能量平衡闭合计算时，不能忽略。而全用新的和全用旧的进行比较，晚上仅有2-3 W m-2差异。 考虑生态系统中非生物因子对干扰条件下生物多样性动态和功能的影响，有助于更精确地阐明生物多样性-稳定性功能的关系。为此，设计了一个单因子刈割实验——内蒙古地区一种广泛存在的土地利用方式。主要目的是研究不同强度刈割影响下，微气候变量特别是能量平衡各分量和群落结构的变化及二者的关系。连续4年刈割，占第一位的优势种明显由低矮半灌木冷蒿 (Artemisia frigida) 取代了高大丛生禾草克氏针茅 (Stipa kylovii)。重度刈割下，针茅的盖度、生物量和丛重，群落叶面积、绿色生物量、凋落物量和群落高度一致低于轻度刈割/不刈割处理。微气候由于群落特征的这些变化也呈规律性变化。与对照相比，重度刈割降低了生长季土壤含水量的47.5%，但中午和日均土壤表面温度分别增加了7.4和1.2 °C，并且增加地表下2 cm土壤温度日较差 (日最高与最低温度之差) 4.2 °C。刈割处理由于凋落物少、反射强而表现出较低的净辐射，但土壤热通量显著提高，表现为土层加热和冷却快。因此，重度刈割处理较对照降低了可供能量8%，约合52,000 W m-2 。不同刈割强度间来看，NPP 或 LAI 与土壤热通量和净辐射的比值 (G/Rn) 以及波文比 (H/LE) 间呈负相关。重度刈割处理感热通量显著提高，但潜热通量在处理间差异不显著，表明未刈割处理虽然冠层伸展大，但是并没有导致更大的水分亏缺。未刈割处理增加了抵抗物种改变的能力，而刈割处理在连续一年一割的第四年显著增加了物种数，可能与因刈割影响而导致的群落结构与微气候的改变有关。本研究表明，未刈割处理可以减轻高温干旱季节的高温和干旱胁迫，表现出对环境变化的高抵抗性。未刈割处理的凋落物层和较高的垂直结构所形成的遮荫，可以形成一个阻挡蒸发的篱笆，这是维持其水分的保证。因此，为了恢复退化草原生态系统功能，需要修复能导致微气候变化的植物群落结构，否则难以成功。 本研究立足于原创性的实验研究，在中国特有的自然草原生态系统上开展，结合不同温度梯度的三地区涡度相关系统进行了能量平衡闭合的移动比较实验，以及结合常用土地利用方式的定点能量平衡实验。在翔实的数据基础上，为涡度相关方法的陆地表面能量平衡失衡问题提供了解释。增加了对两个主要能量流——土壤热通量和净辐射空间变异规律的认识，研究对于能量平衡和湍流通量相关研究是有价值的。在三个代表性地区首次利用多个净辐射仪和土壤热通量板的结果与三个标准的涡度相关系统进行了比较，这类量化失衡原因的相关研究应受到高度重视并进一步拓展，以提高对能量失衡的认识，进而推进水热和碳循环研究向更深层次发展。