A46R and A52R from vaccinia virus are antagonists of host IL-1 and toll-like receptor signaling

Poxviruses employ many strategies to evade and neutralize the host immune response. In this study, we have identified two vaccinia virus ORFs, termed A46R and A52R, that share amino acid sequence similarity with the Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain, a motif that defines the IL-1/Toll-like receptor (TLR) superfamily of receptors, which have a key role in innate immunity and inflammation. When expressed in mammalian cells, the protein products of both ORFs were shown to interfere specifically with IL-1 signal transduction. A46R partially inhibited IL-1-mediated activation of the transcription factor NFκB, and A52R potently blocked both IL-1- and TLR4-mediated NFκB activation. MyD88 is a TIR domain-containing adapter molecule known to have a central role in both IL-1 and TLR4 signaling. A52R mimicked the dominant-negative effect of a truncated version of MyD88 on IL-1, TLR4, and IL-18 signaling but had no effect on MyD88-independent signaling pathways. Therefore, A46R and A52R are likely to represent a mechanism used by vaccinia virus of suppressing TIR domain-dependent intracellular signaling.

Urothelial Carcinogen Resistance Driven By Stronger Toll-like Receptor 2 (tlr2) And Uroplakin Iii (up Iii) Defense Mechanisms: A New Model.

The objective of the study was to illustrate the applicability and significance of the novel Lewis urothelial cancer model compared to the classic Fisher 344. Fischer 344 and Lewis females rats, 7 weeks old, were intravesical instilled N-methyl-N-nitrosourea 1.5 mg/kg every other week for a total of four doses. After 15 weeks, animals were sacrificed and bladders analyzed: histopathology (tumor grade and stage), immunohistochemistry (apoptotic and proliferative indices) and blotting (Toll-like receptor 2-TLR2, Uroplakin III-UP III and C-Myc). Control groups received placebo. There were macroscopic neoplastic lesions in 20 % of Lewis strain and 70 % of Fischer 344 strain. Lewis showed hyperplasia in 50 % of animals, normal bladders in 50 %. All Fischer 344 had lesions, 20 % papillary hyperplasia, 30 % dysplasia, 40 % neoplasia and 10 % squamous metaplasia. Proliferative and apoptotic indices were significantly lower in the Lewis strain (p < 0.01). The TLR2 and UP III protein levels were significantly higher in Lewis compared to Fischer 344 strain (70.8 and 46.5 % vs. 49.5 and 16.9 %, respectively). In contrast, C-Myc protein levels were significantly higher in Fischer 344 (22.5 %) compared to Lewis strain (13.7 %). The innovative Lewis carcinogen resistance urothelial model represents a new strategy for translational research. Preservation of TLR2 and UP III defense mechanisms might drive diverse urothelial phenotypes during carcinogenesis in differently susceptible individuals.

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression in human and murine pancreatic beta-cells affects cell viability and insulin homeostasis

Background: Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is widely recognized as an essential element in the triggering of innate immunity, binding pathogen-associated molecules such as Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and in initiating a cascade of pro-inflammatory events. Evidence for TLR4 expression in non-immune cells, including pancreatic beta-cells, has been shown, but, the functional role of TLR4 in the physiology of human pancreatic beta-cells is still to be clearly established. We investigated whether TLR4 is present in beta-cells purified from freshly isolated human islets and confirmed the results using MIN6 mouse insulinoma cells, by analyzing the effects of TLR4 expression on cell viability and insulin homeostasis. Results: CD11b positive macrophages were practically absent from isolated human islets obtained from nondiabetic brain-dead donors, and TLR4 mRNA and cell surface expression were restricted to beta-cells. A significant loss of cell viability was observed in these beta-cells indicating a possible relationship with TLR4 expression. Monitoring gene expression in beta-cells exposed for 48h to the prototypical TLR4 ligand LPS showed a concentration-dependent increase in TLR4 and CD14 transcripts and decreased insulin content and secretion. TLR4-positive MIN6 cells were also LPS-responsive, increasing TLR4 and CD14 mRNA levels and decreasing cell viability and insulin content. Conclusions: Taken together, our data indicate a novel function for TLR4 as a molecule capable of altering homeostasis of pancreatic beta-cells.

Therapeutic administration of KM+ lectin protects mice against Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection via interleukin-12 production in a Toll-like receptor 2-dependent mechanism

KM+ is a mannose-binding lectin from Artocarpus integrifolia that induces interleukin (IL)-12 production by macrophages and protective T helper I immune response against Leishmania major infection. in this study, we performed experiments to evaluate the therapeutic activity of jackfruit KM+ (jfKM(+)) and its recombinant counterpart (rKM(+)) in experimental paracoccidioidomycosis. To this end, jfKM(+) or rKM(+) was administered to BALB/c mice 10 days after infection with Paracoccidiodes brasiliensis. Thirty days postinfection, lungs from the KM+-treated mice contained significantly fewer colony-forming units and little to no organized granulomas compared to the controls. In addition, lung homogenates from the KM+-treated mice presented higher levels of nitric oxide, IL-12, interferon-gamma, and tumor necrosis factor-a, whereas higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 were detected in the control group. With mice deficient in IL-12, Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2, TLR4, or TLR adaptor molecule MyD88, we demonstrated that KM+ led to protection against P. brasiliensis infection through IL-12 production, which was dependent on TLR2. These results demonstrated a beneficial effect of KM+ on the severity of P. brasiliensis infection and may expand its potential use as a novel immunotherapeutic molecule.

Regulation of chemokine receptor by Toll-like receptor 2 is critical to neutrophil migration and resistance to polymicrobial sepsis

Patients with sepsis have a marked defect in neutrophil migration. Here we identify a key role of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in the regulation of neutrophil migration and resistance during polymicrobial sepsis. We found that the expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR2 was dramatically down-regulated in circulating neutrophils from WT mice with severe sepsis, which correlates with reduced chemotaxis to CXCL2 in vitro and impaired migration into an infectious focus in vivo. TLR2 deficiency prevented the down-regulation of CXCR2 and failure of neutrophil migration. Moreover, TLR2(-/-) mice exhibited higher bacterial clearance, lower serum inflammatory cytokines, and improved survival rate during severe sepsis compared with WT mice. In vitro, the TLR2 agonist lipoteichoic acid (LTA) down-regulated CXCR2 expression and markedly inhibited the neutrophil chemotaxis and actin polymerization induced by CXCL2. Moreover, neutrophils activated ex vivo by LTA and adoptively transferred into naive WT recipient mice displayed a significantly reduced competence to migrate toward thioglycolate-induced peritonitis. Finally, LTA enhanced the expression of G protein-coupled receptor kinases 2 (GRK2) in neutrophils; increased expression of GRK2 was seen in blood neutrophils from WT mice, but not TLR2(-/-) mice, with severe sepsis. Our findings identify an unexpected detrimental role of TLR2 in polymicrobial sepsis and suggest that inhibition of TLR2 signaling may improve survival from sepsis.

The pattern recognition receptors Nod1 and Nod2 account for neutrophil recruitment to the lungs of mice infected with Legionella pneumophila

The intracellular bacterium Legionella pneumophila induces a severe form of pneumonia called Legionnaires diseases, which is characterized by a strong neutrophil (NE) infiltrate to the lungs of infected individuals. Although the participation of pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll-like receptors, was recently demonstrated, there is no information on the role of nod-like receptors (NLRs) for bacterial recognition in vivo and for NE recruitment to the lungs. Here, we employed a murine model of Legionnaires disease to evaluate host and bacterial factors involved in NE recruitment to the mice lungs. We found that L. pneumophila type four secretion system, known as Dot/Icm, was required for NE recruitment as dot/icm mutants fail to trigger NE recruitment in a process independent of bacterial multiplication. By using mice deficient for Nod1, Nod2, and Rip2, we found that these receptors accounted for NE recruitment to the lungs of infected mice. In addition, Rip2-dependent responses were important for cytokine production and bacterial clearance. Collectively, these studies show that Nod1, Nod2, and Rip2 account for generation of innate immune responses in vivo, which are important for NE recruitment and bacterial clearance in a murine model of Legionnaires diseases. (C) 2010 Institut Pasteur. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Colony-stimulating factor-1 suppresses responses to CpG DNA and expression of toll-like receptor 9 but enhances responses to lipopolysaccharide in murine macrophages

During bacterial infections, the balance between resolution of infection and development of sepsis is dependent upon the macrophage response to bacterial products. We show that priming of murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) with CSF-1 differentially regulates the response to two such stimuli, LPS and immunostimulatory (CpG) DNA. CSF-1 pretreatment enhanced IL-6, IL-12, and TNF-alpha production in response to LPS but suppressed the same response to CpG DNA. CSF-1 also regulated cytokine gene expression in response to CpG DNA and LPS; CpG DNA-induced IL-12 p40, IL-12 p35, and TNF-alpha mRNAs were all suppressed by CSF-1 pretreatment. CSF-1 pretreatment enhanced LPS-induced IL-12 p40 mRNA but not TNF-alpha and IL-12 p35 mRNAs, suggesting that part of the priming effect is posttranscriptional. CSF-1 pretreatment also suppressed CpG DNA-induced nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB and phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases p38 and extracellular signal-related kinases-1/2 in BMMs, indicating that early events in CpG DNA signaling were regulated by CSF-1. Expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR)9, which is necessary for responses to CpG DNA, was markedly suppressed by CSF-1 in both BMMs and thioglycolate-elicited peritoneal macrophages. CSF-1 also down-regulated expression of TLR1, TLR2, and TLR6, but not the LPS receptor, TLR4, or TLR5. Hence, CSF-1 may regulate host responses to pathogens through modulation of TLR expression. Furthermore, these results suggest that CSF-1 and CSF-1R antagonists may enhance the efficacy of CpG DNA in vivo.

Toll-like receptor 3 gene polymorphisms are not associated with the risk of hepatitis B and hepatitis C virus infection

INTRODUCTION: The present study investigated the prevalence of two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) gene in patients infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV). METHODS: Samples collected from HCV (n = 74) and HBV (n = 35) carriers were subjected to quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) to detect the presence of the SNPs rs5743305 and rs3775291 in TLR3 and to measure the following biomarkers: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and prothrombin time (PT). A healthy control group was investigated and consisted of 299 HCV- and HBV-seronegative individuals. RESULTS: No significant differences in allele, genotype and haplotype frequencies were observed between the investigated groups, and no association was observed between the polymorphisms and histopathological results. Nevertheless, genotypes TA/AA (rs5743305) and GG (rs3775291) appear to be associated with higher levels of ALT (p<0.01), AST (p<0.05) and PT (p<0.05). In addition, genotypes TT (rs5743305; p<0.05) and GG (rs3775291; p<0.05) were associated with higher GGT levels. CONCLUSIONS: This genetic analysis revealed the absence of an association between the polymorphisms investigated and susceptibility to HBV and HCV infection; however, these polymorphisms might be associated with a greater degree of biliary damage during the course of HCV infection.

Modelo in vitro de ateroesclerosis: Efecto de la infección con Trypanosoma cruzi, lípidos y lipoproteínas sobre la expresión de receptores Toll-like y scavengers en la formación de células espumosas derivadas de macrófagos

Los receptores Toll-like (TLRs) son receptores ancestrales que reconocen modelos moleculares asociados a patógenos y nos defienden de los microorganismos. Su activación por vías de señalización que involucran al factor de transcripción NF-kB, estimula la producción de citoquinas inflamatorias, quimioquinas, moléculas de adhesión y procoagulantes. Recientemente se ha documentado la participación de TLR 2 y 4 en el desarrollo /progresión del ateroma en modelos experimentales in vivo, siendo postulados como nexo entre inflamación, infecciones y ateroesclerosis. Infecciones bacterianas y virales han demostrado jugar un papel en su desarrollo. Sin embargo, el rol de parásitos intracelulares obligados -Trypanosoma cruzi- ha sido escasamente explorado. Los macrófagos, células claves del sistema inmune innato, que pueden ser infectadas in vivo e in vitro por este parásito, expresan en su superficie receptores multiligando scavenger (SR) clase B. Entre ellos, CD 36, capta lipoproteínas de baja densidad (LDL) oxidadas y este mecanismo endocítico no controlado por feedback favorecería la formación de células espumosas, la lesión más temprana de ateroesclerosis. El objetivo general de este proyecto es contribuir a esclarecer el conocimiento de los mecanismos bioquímicos, celulares y moleculares que participan en la formación de células espumosas derivadas de macrófagos. Determinar el efecto de potenciales factores aterogénicos sobre receptores Toll-like and SR-CD 36, permitiría diseñar terapias alternativas tendientes a modular su actividad con la finalidad de disminuir la elevada morbilidad/mortalidad que ocasiona la ateroesclerosis en la sociedad occidental. En nuestro modelo proponemos los siguientes objetivos específicos: -Dilucidar el compromiso de TLRs y SR-clase B en el proceso de aterogenésis, específicamente en la formación de células espumosas.-Investigar la influencia de la infección por T. cruzi, ácidos grasos y LDL modificadas como factores aditivos en la formación de estas células. -Evaluar el efecto de ligandos agonistas de TLR2/4 y SR-CD 36. -Determinar el perfil de citoquinas inflamatorias liberadas en el sobrenadante de los cultivos celulares. -Estudiar el efecto metabólico de las hormonas insulina y adipoquinas en el proceso bioquímico y celular que permite la formación de células espumosas.

Efecto de la infección in vivo con Trypanosoma cruzi y una dieta rica en lípidos sobre receptores Toll-like en un modelo experimental de Aterosclerosis

Además de los factores de riesgos convencionales y mejor conocidos que predisponen a la aterosclerosis, entre ellos, la hiperlipemia, hipertensión y el hábito de fumar, recientemente se ha propuesto a las infecciones y la inflamación como factores de riesgo a tener en cuenta en el desarrollo de esta patología. Considerando que algunas infecciones bacterianas y / o virales pueden ejercer una acción pro-aterogénica, probablemente como consecuencia de inflamación sistémica o un efecto directo sobre la pared vascular, nos propusimos como objetivo principal, estudiar la influencia de la infección in vivo con Trypanosoma cruzi (parásito protozoario, agente etiológico de la Enfermedad de Chagas) más una dieta rica en lípidos sobre la expresión de los receptores de la inmunidad innata (Toll – like) en un modelo experimental desarrollado en ratones C57BL/6, propensos a la aterosclerosis. Por otra parte, nos interesa caracterizar los tipos celulares que infiltran el corazón y la aorta de los animales sometidos a tratamientos experimental (mediante estudios inmunohistoquímicos), el perfil de citoquinas inflamatorias séricas y moléculas de adhesión intercelular, así como también establecer una correlación con parámetros bioquímico – clínicos y endocrinológicos, en especial el perfil de lípidos, lipoproteínas y apolipoproteínas, marcadores de inflamación sistémica, peso corporal, glucemia, insulina e insulina resistencia

Efecto de la infección in vivo con trypanosoma cruzi y una dieta rica en lípidos sobre receptores toll-like en un modelo experimental de ateroesclerosis.

Ateroesclerosis es una enfermedad inflamatoria crónica de arterias de mediano y gran calibre, caracterizada por activación de células endoteliales, reclutamiento de monocitos en la pared de los vasos y diferenciación de macrófagos en células espumosas cargadas de colesterol. Además de los factores de riesgo convencionales y mejor conocidos que predisponen a la ateroesclerosis, como la hiperlipemia, hipertensión y el hábito de fumar, recientemente se ha propuesto a las infecciones y la inflamación como factores de riesgo a considerar en su desarrollo. Algunas infecciones bacterianas o virales pueden ejercer una acción pro-aterogénica, probablemente como consecuencia de inflamación sistémica o un efecto directo sobre la pared vascular. Sin embargo, el papel del Trypanosoma cruzi ha sido escasamente explorado. Como objetivo principal nos propusimos, estudiar la influencia de la infección in vivo con Trypanosoma. cruzi (parásito protozoario, agente etiológico de la Enfermedad de Chagas ) más una dieta rica en lípidos sobre la expresión de los receptores tipo Toll de la inmunidad innata en un modelo experimental en ratones C57BL/6 salvajes, propensos al desarrollo de ateroesclerosis. Especifícamente, nos interesa caracterizar que tipos celulares infiltran el corazón y aorta de los animales sometidos a tratamiento experimental, el perfil de citoquinas inflamatorias séricas, quimioquinas y moléculas de adhesión intercelular, así como también establecer una correlación con parámetros bioquímicos-clínicos y endocrinológicos, en especial el perfil de lípidos, lipoproteínas y apolipoproteínas, marcadores de inflamación sistémica, peso corporal, glucemia, insulina e insulino-resistencia.

Immune regulation and function of the NOD-like receptors NLRC5 and NLRP3

AbstractThe vertebrate immune system is composed of the innate and the adaptive branches. Innate immune cells represent the first line of defense and detect pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), detecting evolutionary conserved pathogen- and danger- associated molecular patterns. Engagement of these receptors initiates the inflammatory response, but also instructs antigen-specific adaptive immune cells. NOD-like receptors (NLRs) are an important group of PRRs, leading to the production of inflammatory mediators and favoring antigen presentation to Τ lymphocytes through the regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.In this work we focused our attention on selected NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and their role at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity. First, we describe a new regulatory mechanism controlling IL-1 production. Our results indicate that type I interferons (IFNs) block NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome activity and interfere with LPS-driven proIL-Ια and -β induction. As type I IFNs are produced upon viral infections, these anti-inflammatory effects of type I IFN could be relevant in the context of superinfections, but could also help explaining the efficacy of IFN-β in multiple sclerosis treatment.The second project addresses the role of a novel NLR family member, called NLRC5. The function of this NLR is still matter of debate, as it has been proposed as both an inhibitor and an activator of different inflammatory pathways. We found that the expression of this protein is restricted to immune cells and is positively regulated by IFNs. We generated Nlrc5-deficient mice and found that this NLR plays an essential role in Τ, NKT and, NK lymphocytes, in which it drives the expression of MHC class I molecules. Accordingly, we could show that CD8+ Τ cell-mediated killing of target lymphocytes lacking NLRC5 is strongly impaired. Moreover, NLRC5 expression was found to be low in many lymphoid- derived tumor cell lines, a mechanism that could be exploited by tumors to escape immunosurveillance.Finally, we found NLRC5 to be involved in the production of IL-10 by CD4+ Τ cells, as Nlrc5- deficient Τ lymphocytes produced less of this cytokine upon TCR triggering. In line with these observations, Mrc5-deficient CD4+ Τ cells expanded more than control cells when transferred into lymphopenic hosts and led to a more rapid appearance of colitis symptoms. Therefore, our work gives novel insights on the function of NLRC5 by using knockout mice, and strongly supports the idea that NLRs direct not only innate, but also adaptive immune responses.

Innate receptors for adaptive immunity.

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) are commonly known as sensor proteins crucial for the early detection of microbial or host-derived stress signals by innate immune cells. Interestingly, some PRRs are also expressed and functional in cells of the adaptive immune system. These receptors provide lymphocytes with innate sensing abilities; for example, B cells express Toll-like receptors, which are important for the humoral response. Strikingly, certain other NOD-like receptors are not only highly expressed in adaptive immune cells, but also exert functions related specifically to adaptive immune system pathways, such as regulating antigen presentation. In this review, we will focus particularly on the current understanding of PRR functions intrinsic to B and T lymphocytes; a developing aspect of PRR biology.