Bond properties of rubber modified epoxy

In this paper, the bond integrity of unmodified and rubber-modified epoxy used for bonding the carbon fibre sheets to the hosting steel surface was investigated. The rigidity of the bonding agent is one of the factors that have a significant role in the premature failure (debonding) of this application. In order to overcome this issue, a series of experiments were conducted on the steel plates using the epoxy resin modified by CTBN and ATBN reactive liquid polymers, in addition to the unmodified epoxy resin. The interface between the carbon fibre matrix and the hosting surface is subjected to a longitudinal shear force for which the corresponding displacement is recorded. The shear stress-strain relationship for the tested specimen is plotted. The result shows that, the bond behaviour of modified epoxy using CTBN and ATBN reactive liquid polymers was improved in terms of ductility and toughness.

Molecular-level dispersion of graphene into epoxidized natural rubber: Morphology, interfacial interaction and mechanical reinforcement

The interfacial interaction of composites dominates the properties of polymeric/inorganic nanocomposites. Herein, epoxy and hydroxyl groups are introduced into the natural rubber (NR) molecular chains to anchor oxygenous functional groups on the surface of graphene oxide (GO) sheets and therefore enhance the interfacial interaction between GO and rubber. From the morphological observation and interaction analysis, it is found that epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) latex particles are assembled onto the surfaces of GO sheets by employing hydrogen bonding interaction as driving force. This self-assembly depresses restacking and agglomeration of GO sheets and leads to homogenous dispersion of GO within ENR matrix. The formation of hydrogen bonding interface between ENR and GO demonstrates a significant reinforcement for the ENR host. Compared with those of pure ENR, the composite with 0.7 wt% GO loading receives 87% increase in tensile strength and 8.7 fold increase in modulus at 200% elongation after static in-situ vulcanization.

The potential for indirect effects between co-flowering plants via shared pollinators depends on resource abundance, accessibility and relatedness

Co-flowering plant species commonly share flower visitors, and thus have the potential to influence each other's pollination. In this study we analysed 750 quantitative plant-pollinator networks from 28 studies representing diverse biomes worldwide. We show that the potential for one plant species to influence another indirectly via shared pollinators was greater for plants whose resources were more abundant (higher floral unit number and nectar sugar content) and more accessible. The potential indirect influence was also stronger between phylogenetically closer plant species and was independent of plant geographic origin (native vs. non-native). The positive effect of nectar sugar content and phylogenetic proximity was much more accentuated for bees than for other groups. Consequently, the impact of these factors depends on the pollination mode of plants, e.g. bee or fly pollinated. Our findings may help predict which plant species have the greatest importance in the functioning of plant-pollination networks.

Regulation of HbPIP2;3, a latex-abundant water transporter, is associated with latex dilution and yield in the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.)

Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) latex, the source of natural rubber, is synthesised in the cytoplasm of laticifers. Efficient water inflow into laticifers is crucial for latex flow and production since it is the determinant of the total solid content of latex and its fluidity after tapping. As the mature laticifer vessel rings are devoid of plasmodesmata, water exchange between laticifers and surrounding cells is believed to be governed by plasma membrane intrinsic proteins (PIPs). To identify the most important PIP aquaporin in the water balance of laticifers, the transcriptional profiles of ten-latex-expressed PIPs were analysed. One of the most abundant transcripts, designated HbPIP2;3, was characterised in this study. When tested in Xenopus laevis oocytes HbPIP2;3 showed a high efficiency in increasing plasmalemma water conductance. Expression analysis indicated that the HbPIP2;3 gene was preferentially expressed in latex, and the transcripts were up-regulated by both wounding and exogenously applied Ethrel (a commonly-used ethylene releaser). Although regular tapping up-regulated the expression of HbPIP2;3 during the first few tappings of the virginal rubber trees, the transcriptional kinetics of HbPIP2;3 to Ethrel stimulation in the regularly tapped tree exhibited a similar pattern to that of the previously reported HbPIP2;1 in the virginal rubber trees. Furthermore, the mRNA level of HbPIP2;3 was associated with clonal yield potential and the Ethrel stimulation response. Together, these results have revealed the central regulatory role of HbPIP2;3 in laticifer water balance and ethylene stimulation of latex production in Hevea.

Graphene networks and their influence on free-volume properties of graphene-epoxidized natural rubber composites with a segregated structure: rheological and positron annihilation studies

Epoxidized natural rubber-graphene (ENR-GE) composites with segregated GE networks were successfully fabricated using the latex mixing combined in situ reduced technology. The rheological behavior and electrical conductivity of ENR-GE composites were investigated. At low frequencies, the storage modulus (G′) became frequency-independent suggesting a solid-like rheological behavior and the formation of GE networks. According to the percolation theory, the rheological threshold of ENR-GE composites was calculated to be 0.17 vol%, which was lower than the electrical threshold of 0.23 vol%. Both percolation thresholds depended on the evolution of the GE networks in the composites. At low GE concentrations (<0.17 vol%), GE existed as individual units, while a "polymer-bridged GE network" was constructed in the composites when GE concentrations exceeded 0.17 vol%. Finally, a "three-dimensional GE network" with percolation conductive paths was formed with a GE concentration of 0.23 vol%, where a remarkable increase in the conductivity of ENR-GE composites was observed. The effect of GE on the atom scale free-volume properties of composites was further studied by positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy and positron age momentum correlation measurements. The motion of ENR chains was retarded by the geometric confinement of "GE networks", producing a high-density interfacial region in the vicinity of GE nanoplatelets, which led to a lower ortho-positronium lifetime intensity and smaller free-volume hole size.

In situ synthesis of natural rubber latex-supported gold nanoparticles for flexible SERS substrates

Natural rubber latex (NRL) from Hevea brasiliensis was used as a matrix to synthesize gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), leading to an organic-inorganic hybrid latex of NRL-supported AuNPs (AuNPs@NRL). The in situ and environmentally friendly preparation of AuNPs in an NRL matrix was developed by thermal treatment without using any other reducing agents or stabilizers because natural rubber particles and non-rubber components present in serum can serve as supporters for the synthesized AuNPs. As a result, the nanosized and well-dispersed AuNPs not only are decorated on the surface of natural rubber particles, but also can be found in the serum of NRL. The size of the AuNPs presented in NRL matrix can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of NRL. Furthermore, the flexible surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrates made from the AuNPs@NRL through vacuum filtration presented good enhancement of the Raman probe molecule of 4-mercaptopyridine and outstanding SERS reproducibility. The capability of synthesizing the bio-supported nanohybrid latex provides a novel green and simple approach for the fabrication of flexible and effective SERS substrates.