Strychnine activates neuronal α7 nicotinic receptors after mutations in the leucine ring and transmitter binding site domains

Recent work has shown that strychnine, the potent and selective antagonist of glycine receptors, is also an antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine (AcCho) receptors including neuronal homomeric α7 receptors, and that mutating Leu-247 of the α7 nicotinic AcCho receptor-channel domain (L247Tα7; mut1) converts some nicotinic antagonists into agonists. Therefore, a study was made of the effects of strychnine on Xenopus oocytes expressing the chick wild-type α7 or L247Tα7 receptors. In these oocytes, strychnine itself did not elicit appreciable membrane currents but reduced the currents elicited by AcCho in a reversible and dose-dependent manner. In sharp contrast, in oocytes expressing L247Tα7 receptors with additional mutations at Cys-189 and Cys-190, in the extracellular N-terminal domain (L247T/C189–190Sα7; mut2), micromolar concentrations of strychnine elicited inward currents that were reversibly inhibited by the nicotinic receptor blocker α-bungarotoxin. Single-channel recordings showed that strychnine gated mut2-channels with two conductance levels, 56 pS and 42 pS, and with kinetic properties similar to AcCho-activated channels. We conclude that strychnine is a modulator, as well as an activator, of some homomeric nicotinic α7 receptors. After injecting oocytes with mixtures of cDNAs encoding mut1 and mut2 subunits, the expressed hybrid receptors were activated by strychnine, similar to the mut2, and had a high affinity to AcCho like the mut1. A pentameric symmetrical model yields the striking conclusion that two identical α7 subunits may be sufficient to determine the functional properties of α7 receptors.

Involvement of unique leucine-zipper motif of PSD-Zip45 (Homer 1c/vesl-1L) in group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptor clustering

Several scaffold proteins for neurotransmitter receptors have been identified as candidates for receptor targeting. However, the molecular mechanism underlying such receptor clustering and targeting to postsynaptic specializations remains unknown. PSD-Zip45 (also named Homer 1c/vesl-1L) consists of the NH2 terminus containing the enabled/VASP homology 1 domain and the COOH terminus containing the leucine zipper. Here, we demonstrate immunohistochemically that metabotropic glutamate receptor 1α (mGluR1α) and PSD-Zip45/Homer 1c are colocalized to synapses in the cerebellar molecular layer but not in the hippocampus. In cultured hippocampal neurons, PSD-Zip45/Homer1c and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors are preferentially colocalized to dendritic spines. Cotransfection of mGluR1α or mGluR5 and PSD-Zip45/Homer 1c into COS-7 cells results in mGluR clustering induced by PSD-Zip45/Homer 1c. An in vitro multimerization assay shows that the extreme COOH-terminal leucine zipper is involved in self-multimerization of PSD-Zip45/Homer 1c. A clustering assay of mGluRs in COS-7 cells also reveals a critical role of this leucine-zipper motif of PSD-Zip45/Homer 1c in mGluR clustering. These results suggest that the leucine zipper of subsynaptic scaffold protein is a candidate motif involved in neurotransmitter receptor clustering at the central synapse.

Structural basis of DNA bending and oriented heterodimer binding by the basic leucine zipper domains of Fos and Jun

Interactions among transcription factors that bind to separate sequence elements require bending of the intervening DNA and juxtaposition of interacting molecular surfaces in an appropriate orientation. Here, we examine the effects of single amino acid substitutions adjacent to the basic regions of Fos and Jun as well as changes in sequences flanking the AP-1 site on DNA bending. Substitution of charged amino acid residues at positions adjacent to the basic DNA-binding domains of Fos and Jun altered DNA bending. The change in DNA bending was directly proportional to the change in net charge for all heterodimeric combinations between these proteins. Fos and Jun induced distinct DNA bends at different binding sites. Exchange of a single base pair outside of the region contacted in the x-ray crystal structure altered DNA bending. Substitution of base pairs flanking the AP-1 site had converse effects on the opposite directions of DNA bending induced by homodimers and heterodimers. These results suggest that Fos and Jun induce DNA bending in part through electrostatic interactions between amino acid residues adjacent to the basic region and base pairs flanking the AP-1 site. DNA bending by Fos and Jun at inverted binding sites indicated that heterodimers bind to the AP-1 site in a preferred orientation. Mutation of a conserved arginine within the basic regions of Fos and transversion of the central C:G base pair in the AP-1 site to G:C had complementary effects on the orientation of heterodimer binding and DNA bending. The conformational variability of the Fos–Jun–AP-1 complex may contribute to its functional versatility at different promoters.

Di-Leucine Signals Mediate Targeting of Tyrosinase and Synaptotagmin to Synaptic-like Microvesicles within PC12 Cells

One pathway in forming synaptic-like microvesicles (SLMV) involves direct budding from the plasma membrane, requires adaptor protein 2 (AP2) and is brefeldin A (BFA) resistant. A second route leads from the plasma membrane to an endosomal intermediate from which SLMV bud in a BFA-sensitive, AP3-dependent manner. Because AP3 has been shown to bind to a di-leucine targeting signal in vitro, we have investigated whether this major class of targeting signals is capable of directing protein traffic to SLMV in vivo. We have found that a di-leucine signal within the cytoplasmic tail of human tyrosinase is responsible for the majority of the targeting of HRP-tyrosinase chimeras to SLMV in PC12 cells. Furthermore, we have discovered that a Met-Leu di-hydrophobic motif within the extreme C terminus of synaptotagmin I supports 20% of the SLMV targeting of a CD4-synaptotagmin chimera. All of the traffic to the SLMV mediated by either di-Leu or Met-Leu is BFA sensitive, strongly suggesting a role for AP3 and possibly for an endosomal intermediate in this process. The differential reduction in SLMV targeting for HRP-tyrosinase and CD4-synaptotagmin chimeras by di-alanine substitutions or BFA treatment implies that different proteins use the two routes to the SLMV to differing extents.

The leucine zipper may induce electrophoretic mobility anomalies without DNA bending

Numerous proteins bend DNA upon binding, a phenomenon of potential significance for regulation of gene expression and chromatin. DNA bending is commonly predicted from the presence of electrophoretic mobility anomalies in protein–DNA complexes. However, as compared with electrophoretic methods, several DNA binding oncoprotein families do not display comparable evidence of DNA bends in x-ray structural studies. Herein, circularization kinetics and affinity measurements with prebent DNA templates were employed to assess bending and DNA structural preferences for Max and other basic helix–loop–helix/leucine zipper proteins. In this way, proteins in the Myc/Max basic helix–loop–helix/leucine zipper family were found not to bend DNA in solution but to actually stabilize DNA in an unbent configuration that resists circularization. The mobility anomaly was found to be induced by the leucine zipper protein motif, rather than structural distortions of DNA. Thus rigid protein domain structures may induce anomalous electrophoretic mobility. Moreover, the energetic preference of non-DNA bending proteins for unbent templates suggests mechanisms whereby chromatin structure may regulate transcription.

Evidence for specific nucleocytoplasmic transport pathways used by leucine-rich nuclear export signals

Various proteins with different biological activities have been observed to be translocated from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in an energy- and signal-dependent manner in eukaryotic cells. This nuclear export is directed by nuclear export signals (NESs), typically characterized by hydrophobic, primarily leucine, amino acid residues. Moreover, it has been shown that CRM1/exportin 1 is an export receptor for leucine-rich NESs. However, additional NES-interacting proteins have been described. In particular, eukaryotic initiation factor 5A (eIF-5A) has been shown to be a critical cellular cofactor for the nuclear export of the HIV type 1 (HIV-1) Rev trans-activator protein. In this study we compared the nuclear export activity of NESs of different origin. Microinjection of export substrates into the nucleus of somatic cells in combination with specific inhibitors indicated that specific nuclear export pathways exist for different NES-containing proteins. In particular, inhibition of eIF-5A blocked the nuclear export of NESs derived from the HIV-1 Rev and human T cell leukemia virus type I Rex trans-activators, whereas nucleocytoplasmic translocation of the protein kinase inhibitor-NES was unaffected. In contrast, however, inhibition of CRM1/exportin 1 blocked the nuclear export of all NES-containing proteins investigated. Our data confirm that CRM1/exportin 1 is a general export receptor for leucine-rich NESs and suggest that eIF-5A acts either upstream of CRM1/exportin 1 or forms a complex with the NES and CRM1/exportin 1 in the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of the HIV-1 Rev and human T cell leukemia virus type I Rex RNA export factors.

Interaction of NPR1 with basic leucine zipper protein transcription factors that bind sequences required for salicylic acid induction of the PR-1 gene

The Arabidopsis thaliana NPR1 has been shown to be a key regulator of gene expression during the onset of a plant disease-resistance response known as systemic acquired resistance. The npr1 mutant plants fail to respond to systemic acquired resistance-inducing signals such as salicylic acid (SA), or express SA-induced pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. Using NPR1 as bait in a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified a subclass of transcription factors in the basic leucine zipper protein family (AHBP-1b and TGA6) and showed that they interact specifically in yeast and in vitro with NPR1. Point mutations that abolish the NPR1 function in A. thaliana also impair the interactions between NPR1 and the transcription factors in the yeast two-hybrid assay. Furthermore, a gel mobility shift assay showed that the purified transcription factor protein, AHBP-1b, binds specifically to an SA-responsive promoter element of the A. thaliana PR-1 gene. These data suggest that NPR1 may regulate PR-1 gene expression by interacting with a subclass of basic leucine zipper protein transcription factors.

Nucleocytoplasmic translocation of Stat1 is regulated by a leucine-rich export signal in the coiled-coil domain

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat) proteins are latent transcription factors that reside in the cytoplasm before activation. On cytokine-induced tyrosine phosphorylation, these molecules dimerize and accumulate transiently in the nucleus. No specific signals mediating these processes have been identified to date. In this report, we examine the nuclear export of Stat1. We find that treatment of cells with the export inhibitor leptomycin B does not affect steady-state localization of Stat1 but impedes nuclear export after IFNγ-induced nuclear accumulation. We identify a conserved leucine-rich helical segment in the coiled-coil domain of Stat1, which is responsible for the efficient nuclear export of this protein. Mutation of two hallmark leucines within this segment greatly attenuate the back transport of Stat1 in the cytoplasm. When fused to a carrier protein, the Stat1 export sequence can mediate nuclear export after intranuclear microinjection. We show that prolonging the nuclear presence of Stat1 by inhibiting nuclear export reduces the transcriptional response to stimulation with IFNγ. These data suggest that Stats are actively exported from the nucleus via several separate pathways and link this activity to transcriptional activation.

Routine protein energy supplementation in adults: systematic review

Objectives: To determine whether routine oral and enteral nutritional supplementation can improve the weight, anthropometry, and survival of adult patients.

Leucine zipper motif of chicken histone acetyltransferase-1 is essential for in vivo and in vitro interactions with the p48 subunit of chicken chromatin assembly factor-1

We cloned cDNA encoding chicken cytoplasmic histone acetyltransferase-1, chHAT-1, comprising 408 amino acids including a putative initiation Met. It exhibits 80.4% identity to the human homolog and possesses a typical leucine zipper motif. The glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assay, involving truncated and missense mutants of the chicken chromatin assembly factor-1 (chCAF-1)p48, revealed not only that a region (comprising amino acids 376–405 of chCAF-1p48 and containing the seventh WD dipeptide motif) binds to chHAT-1 in vitro, but also that mutation of the motif has no influence on the in vitro interaction. The GST pull-down assay, involving truncated and missense chHAT-1 mutants, established that a region, comprising amino acids 380–408 of chHAT-1 and containing the leucine zipper motif, is required for its in vitro interaction with chCAF-1p48. In addition, mutation of each of four Leu residues in the leucine zipper motif prevents the in vitro interaction. The yeast two-hybrid assay revealed that all four Leu residues within the leucine zipper motif of chHAT-1 are necessary for its in vivo interaction with chCAF-1p48. These results indicate not only that the proper leucine zipper motif of chHAT-1 is essential for its interaction with chCAF-1p48, but also that the propeller structure of chCAF-1p48 expected to act as a platform for protein–protein interactions may not be necessary for this interaction of chHAT-1.

A Di-Leucine Sequence and a Cluster of Acidic Amino Acids Are Required for Dynamic Retention in the Endosomal Recycling Compartment of Fibroblasts

Insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), a transmembrane aminopeptidase, is dynamically retained within the endosomal compartment of fibroblasts. The characteristics of this dynamic retention are rapid internalization from the plasma membrane and slow recycling back to the cell surface. These specialized trafficking kinetics result in <15% of IRAP on the cell surface at steady state, compared with 35% of the transferrin receptor, another transmembrane protein that traffics between endosomes and the cell surface. Here we demonstrate that a 29-amino acid region of IRAP's cytoplasmic domain (residues 56–84) is necessary and sufficient to promote trafficking characteristic of IRAP. A di-leucine sequence and a cluster of acidic amino acids within this region are essential elements of the motif that slows IRAP recycling. Rapid internalization requires any two of three distinct motifs: M15,16, DED64–66, and LL76,77. The DED and LL sequences are part of the motif that regulates recycling, demonstrating that this motif is bifunctional. In this study we used horseradish peroxidase quenching of fluorescence to demonstrate that IRAP is dynamically retained within the transferrin receptor-containing general endosomal recycling compartment. Therefore, our data demonstrate that motifs similar to those that determine targeting among distinct membrane compartments can also regulate the rate of transport of proteins from endosomal compartments. We propose a model for dynamic retention in which IRAP is transported from the general endosomal recycling compartment in specialized, slowly budding recycling vesicles that are distinct from those that mediate rapid recycling back to the surface (e.g., transferrin receptor-containing transport vesicles). It is likely that the dynamic retention of IRAP is an example of a general mechanism for regulating the distribution of proteins between the surface and interior of cells.

A framework for interpreting the leucine-rich repeats of the Listeria internalins

The surface protein InlB of the bacterial pathogen Listeria monocytogenes is required for inducing phagocytosis in various nonphagocytic mammalian cell types in vitro. InlB causes tyrosine phosphorylation of host cell adaptor proteins, activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton. These events lead to phagocytic uptake of the bacterium by the host cell. InlB belongs to the internalin family of Listeria proteins, which also includes InlA, another surface protein involved in host cell invasion. The internalins are the largest class of bacterial proteins containing leucine-rich repeats (LRR), a motif associated with protein–protein interactions. The LRR motif is found in a functionally diverse array of proteins, including those involved in the plant immune system and in the mammalian innate immune response. Structural and functional interpretations of the sequences of internalin family members are presented in light of the recently determined x-ray crystal structure of the InlB LRR domain.