Leonardo's Civil Bridges

Within both aesthetic and history fields, civil engineering occupies a privileged place among arts whose manifestations are based on drawing. In this work, Leonardo’s creativity concerned with civil bridges proyects, have been studied. Leonardo designed ten bridges: eight of them intended for military porposes and only two were purely planned for civil functionaly - “Ponte sul corno d’oro”, infolio 66, manuscript L; and “Ponte a due piani”, represented in the Manuscript B at the Institute of France, infolio 23. There can be no doubt about Leonardo’s intentions when he started on designing these two bridges: his genious for creativy focused on providing both singulary and functionaly to the structures: they should be admired and utilized at the same time, a monument for civil society to be used.The work presented here attemps to make an scientist-historical trip along these Leonardo’s bridges, highlighting their technical, geometrical and aesthetic characteristics, as well as emphasizing Leonardo’s human, scientist and artistic nature.

Spectral-analysis-surface-waves-method in ground characterization

The prediction of train induced vibration levels in structures close to railway tracks before track construction starts is important in order to avoid having to implement costly mitigation measures afterwards. The used models require an accurate characterization of the propagation medium i.e. the soil layers. To this end the spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) method has been chosen among the active surface waves techniques available. As dynamic source a modal sledge hammer has been used. The generated vibrations have been measured at known offsets by means of several accelerometers. There are many parameters involved in estimating the experimental dispersion curve and, later on, thickness and propagation velocities of the different layers. Tests have been carried out at the Segovia railway station. Its main building covers some of the railway tracks and vibration problems in the building should be avoided. In the paper these tests as well as the influence of several parameters on the estimated soil profile will be detailed.

Pré-Fabricaçao em edificios habitacionais a custos controlados

Hay una necesidad creciente para la construcción de viviendas, necesidad que se ha incrementado de forma exponencial en las últimas décadas. Esta necesidad es considerable en los países en vías de desarrollo, donde la población tiene una tasa de crecimiento elevada, mucho mayor que en los países desarrollados. Además, la población en el Mundo está desplazándose progresivamente hacia las ciudades. Es en los alrededores de las ciudades de países en desarrollo donde surge una necesidad de construir viviendas de coste controlado, asequibles, que se convierte en algunos casos en crítica. La Comisión de Prefabricación de la fib (International Federation for Structural Concrete, Federation Internationale du Béton, Federación Internacional del Hormigón Estructural) ha sido consciente por muchos años de este problema y tomó la decisión de crear un grupo de trabajo para desarrollar un documento sobre viviendas prefabricadas de coste asequible. Este documento estará dedicado a servir de ayuda sobre las técnicas de la prefabricación para las personas que deseen construir este tipo de viviendas. El presente artículo hace un resumen del trabajo desarrollado por este grupo hasta el momento.

Environmental analysis of residential building facades through energy consumption, GHG emissions and costs

This paper provides some results on the potential to minimize environmental impacts in residential buildings life cycle, through façade design strategies, analyzing also their impact on costs from a lifecycle perspective. On one hand, it assesses the environmental damage produced by the materials of the building envelope, and on the other, the benefits they offer in terms of habitability and liveability in the use phase. The analysis includes several design parameters used both for rehabilitation of existing facades, as for new facades, trying to cover various determinants and proposing project alternatives. With this study we intended to contribute to address the energy challenges for the coming years, trying also to propose pathways for innovative solutions for the building envelope.

Estimación del riesgo sísmico en puerto príncipe (Haití)

Tras el devastador terremoto del 12 de enero de 2010 en Puerto Príncipe, Haití, las autoridades locales, numerosas ONGs y organismos nacionales e internacionales están trabajando en el desarrollo de estrategias para minimizar el elevado riesgo sísmico existente en el país. Para ello es necesario, en primer lugar, estimar dicho riesgo asociado a eventuales terremotos futuros que puedan producirse, evaluando el grado de pérdidas que podrían generar, para dimensionar la catástrofe y actuar en consecuencia, tanto en lo referente a medidas preventivas como a adopción de planes de emergencia. En ese sentido, este Trabajo Fin de Master aporta un análisis detallado del riesgo sísmico asociado a un futuro terremoto que podría producirse con probabilidad razonable, causando importantes daños en Puerto Príncipe. Se propone para ello una metodología de cálculo del riesgo adaptada a los condicionantes de la zona, con modelos calibrados empleando datos del sismo de 2010. Se ha desarrollado en el marco del proyecto de cooperación Sismo-Haití, financiado por la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, que comenzó diez meses después del terremoto de 2010 como respuesta a una petición de ayuda del gobierno haitiano. El cálculo del riesgo requiere la consideración de dos inputs: la amenaza sísmica o movimiento esperado por el escenario definido (sismo de cierta magnitud y localización) y los elementos expuestos a esta amenaza (una clasificación del parque inmobiliario en diferentes tipologías constructivas, así como su vulnerabilidad). La vulnerabilidad de estas tipologías se describe por medio de funciones de daño: espectros de capacidad, que representan su comportamiento ante las fuerzas horizontales motivadas por los sismos, y curvas de fragilidad, que representan la probabilidad de que las estructuras sufran daños al alcanzar el máximo desplazamiento horizontal entre plantas debido a la mencionada fuerza horizontal. La metodología que se propone especifica determinadas pautas y criterios para estimar el movimiento, asignar la vulnerabilidad y evaluar el daño, cubriendo los tres estados del proceso. Por una parte, se consideran diferentes modelos de movimiento fuerte incluyendo el efecto local, y se identifican los que mejor ajustan a las observaciones de 2010. Por otra se clasifica el parque inmobiliario en diferentes tipologías constructivas, en base a la información extraída en una campaña de campo y utilizando además una base de datos aportada por el Ministerio de Obras Públicas de Haití. Ésta contiene información relevante de todos los edificios de la ciudad, resultando un total de 6 tipologías. Finalmente, para la estimación del daño se aplica el método capacidad-demanda implementado en el programa SELENA (Molina et al., 2010). En primer lugar, utilizado los datos de daño del terremoto de 2010, se ha calibrado el modelo propuesto de cálculo de riesgo sísmico: cuatro modelos de movimiento fuerte, tres modelos de tipo de suelo y un conjunto de funciones de daño. Finalmente, con el modelo calibrado, se ha simulado un escenario sísmico determinista correspondiente a un posible terremoto con epicentro próximo a Puerto Príncipe. Los resultados muestran que los daños estructurales serán considerables y podrán llevar a pérdidas económicas y humanas que causen un gran impacto en el país, lo que pone de manifiesto la alta vulnerabilidad estructural existente. Este resultado será facilitado a las autoridades locales, constituyendo una base sólida para toma de decisiones y adopción de políticas de prevención y mitigación del riesgo. Se recomienda dirigir esfuerzos hacia la reducción de la vulnerabilidad estructural - mediante refuerzo de edificios vulnerables y adopción de una normativa sismorresistente- y hacia el desarrollo de planes de emergencia. Abstract After the devastating 12 January 2010 earthquake that hit the city of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, strategies to minimize the high seismic risk are being developed by local authorities, NGOs, and national and international institutions. Two important tasks to reach this objective are, on the one hand, the evaluation of the seismic risk associated to possible future earthquakes in order to know the dimensions of the catastrophe; on the other hand, the design of preventive measures and emergency plans to minimize the consequences of such events. In this sense, this Master Thesis provides a detailed estimation of the damage that a possible future earthquake will cause in Port-au-Prince. A methodology to calculate the seismic risk is proposed, adapted to the study area conditions. This methodology has been calibrated using data from the 2010 earthquake. It has been conducted in the frame of the Sismo-Haiti cooperative project, supported by the Technical University of Madrid, which started ten months after the 2010 earthquake as an answer to an aid call of the Haitian government. The seismic risk calculation requires two inputs: the seismic hazard (expected ground motion due to a scenario earthquake given by magnitude and location) and the elements exposed to the hazard (classification of the building stock into building typologies, as well as their vulnerability). This vulnerability is described through the damage functions: capacity curves, which represent the structure performance against the horizontal forces caused by the seisms; and fragility curves, which represent the probability of damage as the structure reaches the maximum spectral displacement due to the horizontal force. The proposed methodology specifies certain guidelines and criteria to estimate the ground motion, assign the vulnerability, and evaluate the damage, covering the whole process. Firstly, different ground motion prediction equations including the local effect are considered, and the ones that have the best correlation with the observations of the 2010 earthquake, are identified. Secondly, the classification of building typologies is made by using the information collected during a field campaign, as well as a data base provided by the Ministry of Public Works of Haiti. This data base contains relevant information about all the buildings in the city, leading to a total of 6 different typologies. Finally, the damage is estimated using the capacity-spectrum method as implemented in the software SELENA (Molina et al., 2010). Data about the damage caused by the 2010 earthquake have been used to calibrate the proposed calculation model: different choices of ground motion relationships, soil models, and damage functions. Then, with the calibrated model, a deterministic scenario corresponding to an epicenter close to Port-au-Prince has been simulated. The results show high structural damage, and therefore, they point out the high structural vulnerability in the city. Besides, the economic and human losses associated to the damage would cause a great impact in the country. This result will be provided to the Haitian Government, constituting a scientific base for decision making and for the adoption of measures to prevent and mitigate the seismic risk. It is highly recommended to drive efforts towards the quality control of the new buildings -through reinforcement and construction according to a seismic code- and the development of emergency planning.

Efectos de los dispositivos de protección solar en el aislamiento acústico a ruido aéreo de las fachadas de los recintos. Estudio de casos

La fachada es la parte visible de un edificio que en general consta de diferentes sistemas constructivos. El índice de reducción acústica del cerramiento del hueco de la fachada de un recinto es determinante en el aislamiento acústico a ruido aéreo de la fachada del mismo. Una ventana es la parte transparente de la fachada y para mejorar su comportamiento térmico y controlar la radiación solar, se ha equipado con diferentes protecciones externas o internas, como por ejemplo las contraventanas, celosías, persianas, etc. En este trabajo se muestran los resultados experimentales de varias decenas de ensayos realizados, de las mediciones in situ del aislamiento acústico a ruido aéreo de las fachadas de recintos mediante la aplicación de la Norma UNE-EN ISO 140-5:1999. En cada uno de los recintos, los ensayos acústicos se han realizado en dos situaciones, con y sin protección solar. Posteriormente se ha analizado el comportamiento acústico de cada una de las protecciones solares.

Coeficiente de absorción a incidencia normal de espumas de aluminio de poro abierto fabricadas mediante el método de infiltración

Dependiendo de la conexión entre sus poros, las espumas metálicas se clasifican en espumas de poro abierto o poro cerrado. La mayoría de las espumas que se comercializan actualmente son espumas de poro cerrado. Sin embargo, para algunas aplicaciones son más apropiadas las espumas de poro abierto. En este trabajo, se estudia el coeficiente de absorción en tubo de impedancia de espumas de aluminio de poro abierto fabricadas mediante el proceso de infiltración. Estas espumas se caracterizan por una estructura muy homogénea y por un elevado valor del coeficiente de absorción a bajas frecuencias cuando se combinan con una cámara de aire

Influence of loudspeaker directivity on the measurement uncertainty

One of the most significant aspects of a building’s acoustic behavior is the airborne sound insulation of the room façades, since this determines the protection of its inhabitants against environmental noise. For this reason, authorities in most countries have established in their acoustic regulations for buildings the minimum value of sound insulation that must be respected for façades. In order to verify compliance with legal requirements it is usual to perform acoustic measurements in the finished buildings and then compare the measurement results with the established limits. Since there is always a certain measurement uncertainty, this uncertainty must be calculated and taken into account in order to ensure compliance with specifications. The most commonly used method for measuring sound insulation on façades is the so-called Global Loudspeaker Method, specified in ISO 140-5:1998. This method uses a loudspeaker placed outside the building as a sound source. The loudspeaker directivity has a significant influence on the measurement results, and these results may change noticeably by choosing different loudspeakers, even though they all fulfill the directivity requirements of ISO 140-5. This work analyzes the influence of the loudspeaker directivity on the results of façade sound insulation measurement, and determines its contribution to measurement uncertainty. The theoretical analysis is experimentally validated by means of an intermediate precision test according to ISO 5725-3:1994, which compares the values of sound insulation obtained for a façade using various loudspeakers with different directivities

Viscoelastic vibration damping identification methods. Application to laminated glass.

Laminatedglass is composed of two glass layers and a thin intermediate PVB layer, strongly influencing PVB's viscoelastic behaviour its dynamic response. While natural frequencies are relatively easily identified even with simplified FE models, damping ratios are not identified with such an ease. In order to determine to what extent external factors influence dampingidentification, different tests have been carried out. The external factors considered, apart from temperature, are accelerometers, connection cables and the effect of the glass layers. To analyse the influence of the accelerometers and their connection cables a laser measuring device was employed considering three possibilities: sample without instrumentation, sample with the accelerometers fixed and sample completely instrumented. When the sample is completely instrumented, accelerometer readings are also analysed. To take into consideration the effect of the glass layers, tests were realised both for laminatedglass and monolithic samples. This paper presents in depth data analysis of the different configurations and establishes criteria for data acquisition when testing laminatedglass.

Operational Modal Analysis on laminated glass beams

Laminated glass is a sandwich element consisting of two or more glass sheets, with one or more interlayers of polyvinyl butyral (PVB). The dynamic response of laminated glass beams and plates can be predicted using analytical or numerical models in which the glass and the PVB are usually modelled as linear-elastic and linear viscoelastic materials, respectively. In this work the dynamic behavior of laminated glass beams are predicted using a finite element model and the analytical model of Ross-Kerwin-Ungar. The numerical and analytical results are compared with those obtained by operational modal analysis performed at different temperatures.

Dynamic analysis of road vehicle-bridge systems under turbulent wind by means of Finite Element Models

When an automobile passes over a bridge dynamic effects are produced in vehicle and structure. In addition, the bridge itself moves when exposed to the wind inducing dynamic effects on the vehicle that have to be considered. The main objective of this work is to understand the influence of the different parameters concerning the vehicle, the bridge, the road roughness or the wind in the comfort and safety of the vehicles when crossing bridges. Non linear finite element models are used for structures and multibody dynamic models are employed for vehicles. The interaction between the vehicle and the bridge is considered by contact methods. Road roughness is described by the power spectral density (PSD) proposed by the ISO 8608. To consider that the profiles under right and left wheels are different but not independent, the hypotheses of homogeneity and isotropy are assumed. To generate the wind velocity history along the road the Sandia method is employed. The global problem is solved by means of the finite element method. First the methodology for modelling the interaction is verified in a benchmark. Following, the case of a vehicle running along a rigid road and subjected to the action of the turbulent wind is analyzed and the road roughness is incorporated in a following step. Finally the flexibility of the bridge is added to the model by making the vehicle run over the structure. The application of this methodology will allow to understand the influence of the different parameters in the comfort and safety of road vehicles crossing wind exposed bridges. Those results will help to recommend measures to make the traffic over bridges more reliable without affecting the structural integrity of the viaduct

Wedges and plate-bandes: mechanical theories after De la Hire

Plate-bandes are straight masonry arches (they are called, also, flat arches or lintel arches). Ideally they have the surfaces of extrados and intrados plane and horizontal. The stones or bricks have radial joints converging usually in one centre. The voussoirs have the form of wedges and in French they are called "claveaux". A plate-bande is, in fact, a lintel made of several stones and the proportions of lintels and plate-bandes are similar. Proportions of plate-bandes, that is the relationship between the thickness t and the span s (t/s)varies, typically between 1/4–1/3 in thick plate-bandes, and is less than 1/20 in the most slender ones. A ratio of circa 1/8 was usual in the 18th Century and follows a simple geometrical rule: the centre form with the intrados an equilateral triangle and the plate-bande should contain an arc of circle. The joints are usually plane, but in some cases present a «rebated» or «stepped» form. Plate-bandes exert an inclined thrust as any masonry arch. This thrust is usually very high and it requires either massive buttresses, or to be built in the middle of thick walls. Master builders and architects have tried since antiquity to calculate the abutment necessary for any arch. A modern architect or engineer will measure the arch thrust in units of force, kN or tons. Traditionally, the thrust has been measured as the size of the buttresses to resist it safely. Old structural rules, then, addressed the design problem establishing a relationship between the span and the depth of the buttress. These were empirical rules, particular for every type of arch or structure in every epoch. Thus, the typical gothic buttress is 1/4 of the vault span, but a Renaissance or baroque barrel vault will need more than 1/3 of the span. A plate-bande would require more than one half of the span; this is precisely the rule cited by the French engineer Gautier, who tried unsuccessfully to justify it by static reasons. They were used, typically, to form the lintels of windows or doors (1-2 m, typically); in Antiquity they were used, also, though rarely, at the gates of city walls or in niches (ca. 2 m, reaching 5.2 m). Plate-bandes may show particular problems: it is not unusual that some sliding of the voussoirs can be observed, particularly in thick plate-bandes. The stepped joints on Fig. 1, left, were used to avoid this problem. There are other «hidden» methods, like iron cramps or the use of stone wedges, etc. In seismic zones these devices were usual. Another problem relates to the deformation; a slight yielding of the abutments, or even the compression of the mortar joints, may lead to some cracking and the descent of the central keystone. Even a tiny descent will convert the original straight line of the intrados in a broken line with a visible «kink» or angle in the middle. Of course, both problems should be avoided. Finally, the wedge form of the voussoirs lead to acute angles in the stones and this can produce partial fractures; this occurs usually at the inferior border of the springers at the abutments. It follows, that to build a successful plate-bande is not an easy matter. Also, the structural study of plate-bandes is far from simple, and mechanics and geometry are related in a particular way. In the present paper we will concentrate on the structural aspects and their constructive consequences, with a historical approach. We will outline the development of structural analysis of plate-bandes from ca. 1700 until today. This brief history has a more than purely academic interest. Different approaches and theories pointed to particular problem, and though the solution given may have been incorrect, the question posed was often pertinent. The paper ends with the application of modern Limit Analysis of Masonry Structures, developed mainly by professor Heyman in the last fifty years. The work aims, also, to give some clues for the actual architect and engineer involved in the analysis or restoration of masonry buildings.

Revisión sobre el estado del arte del análisis de ciclo de vida para tableros derivados de la madera

El presente trabajo tiene por objeto realizar una revisión del „estado del arte‟ sobre los estudios del análisis de ciclo de vida de la madera, más concretamente el caso de los tableros derivados, ya que conforman el eslabón que permite su reutilización en fases sucesivas, asumiéndose de forma intrínseca el concepto de reciclado dentro de la cadena de transformación de esta industria. Todo ello sumado a las ventajas medioambientales de la madera caracterizadas por el efecto sumidero del CO2, así como la reducción del consumo de energía en el proceso de fabricación. En la etapa de recopilación de la documentación durante la búsqueda, se han tratado de recoger y resaltar aquellas experiencias, más interesantes e innovadoras, llevadas a cabo en los últimos años en el tema mencionado, tratando de extraer aquellos casos que permitan obtener una visión tanto de las tendencias en el ámbito internacional como del nacional, e incluso local. De la información aquí recogida sobre el análisis del ciclo de vida de los productos derivados de la madera, se busca constatar las ventajas resultantes de su empleo, respecto de otros materiales.

Modelling Crowd Load for Floor Vibration Analysis

The dynamic floor loads induced by crowds in gymnasium or stadium structures are commonly modelled by superposition of the individual contributions using reduction factors for the different Fourier coefficients. These Fourier coefficients and the reduction factors are calculated using full scale measurements. Generally the testing is performed on platforms or structures that can be considered rigid, such that the natural frequencies are higher than the frequencies of the spectator movement. In this paper we shall present the testing done on a structure that used to be a gymnasium as well as the procedure used to identify its dynamic properties and a first evaluation of the socalled “group effect”.

Models for Lateral Dynamic Interaction of High-Speed Trains and Bridges

In this work a methodology for analysing the lateral coupled behavior of large viaducts and high-speed trains is proposed. The finite element method is used for the structure, multibody techniques are applied for vehicles and the interaction between them is established introducing wheel-rail nonlinear contact forces. This methodology is applied for the analysis of the railway viaduct of the R´ıo Barbantino, which is a very long and tall bridge in the north-west spanish high-speed line.