Oxygen photolysis in the Mauritanian upwelling: Implications for net community production

We carried out 16 photochemical experiments of filtered surface water in a custom-built solar simulator and concomitant measurements of in vitro gross primary production (GPP) and respiration (R) in the Mauritanian upwelling during a Lagrangian study following three sulfur hexafluoride–labeled patches of upwelled water (P1 to P3). Oxygen photolysis rates were correlated with the absorbance of chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) at 300 nm, suggesting first-order kinetics with respect to CDOM. An exponential fit was used to calculate the apparent quantum yield (AQY) for oxygen photolysis, giving an average AQY of 0.00053 µmol O2 (mole photons m−2 s−1)−1 at 280 nm and slope of 0.0012 nm−1. Modeled photochemical oxygen demand (POD) at the surface (3–16 mmol m−3 d−1) occasionally exceeded R and was dominated by ultraviolet radiation (71–79%). Euphotic-layer integrated GPP decreased with time during both P-1 and P-3, whereas R remained relatively constant and POD increased during P-1 and decreased during P-3. On Day 4 of P-3, GPP and POD maxima coincided with high CDOM absorbance, suggesting “new” CDOM production. Omitting POD may lead to an underestimation of net community production (NCP), both through in vitro and geochemical methods (here by 2–22%). We propose that oxygen-based NCP estimates should be revised upward. For the Mauritanian upwelling, the POD-corrected NCP was strongly correlated with standard NCP with a slope of 1.0066 ± 0.0244 and intercept of 46.51 ± 13.15 mmol m−2 d−1.

The dispersal of phytoplankton populations by enhanced turbulent mixing in a shallow coastal sea

A single tidal cycle survey in a Lagrangian reference frame was conducted in autumn 2010 to evaluate the impact of short-term, episodic and enhanced turbulent mixing on large chain-forming phytoplankton. Observations of turbulence using a free-falling microstructure profiler were undertaken, along with near-simultaneous profiles with an in-line digital holographic camera at station L4 (50° 15′ N 4° 13′ W, depth 50 m) in the Western English Channel. Profiles from each instrument were collected hourly whilst following a drogued drifter. Results from an ADCP attached to the drifter showed pronounced vertical shear, indicating that the water column structure consisted of two layers, restricting interpretation of the Lagrangian experiment to the upper ~ 25 m. Atmospheric conditions deteriorated during the mid-point of the survey, resulting in values of turbulent dissipation reaching a maximum of 10− 4 W kg− 1 toward the surface in the upper 10 m. Chain-forming phytoplankton > 200 μm were counted using the data from the holographic camera for the two periods, before and after the enhanced mixing event. As mixing increased phytoplankton underwent chain breakage, were dispersed by advection through their removal from the upper to lower layer and subjected to aggregation with other suspended material. Depth averaged counts of phytoplankton were reduced from a maximum of around 2050 L− 1 before the increased turbulence, to 1070 L− 1 after, with each of these mechanisms contributing to this reduction. These results demonstrate the sensitivity of phytoplantkon populations to moderate increases in turbulent activity, yielding consequences for accurate forecasting of the role played by phytoplankton in climate studies and also for the ecosystem in general in their role as primary producers.

The origin of sub-surface source waters define the sea-air flux of methane in the Mauritanian Upwelling, NW Africa

Concentrations and flux densities of methane were determined during a lagrangian study of an advective filament in the permanent upwelling region off western Mauritania. Newly upwelled waters were dominated by the presence of North Atlantic Central Water and surface CH4 concentrations of 2.2 ± 0.3 nmol L-1 were largely in equilibrium with atmospheric values, with surface saturations of 101.7 ± 14%. As the upwelling filament aged and was advected offshore, CH4 enriched South Atlantic Central Water from intermediate depths of 100 to 350m was entrained into the surface mixed layer of the filament following intense mixing associated with the shelf break. Surface saturations increased to 198.9 ± 15% and flux densities increased from a mean value over the shelf of 2.0 ± 1.1 µmol m-2d-1 to a maximum of 22.6 µmol m-2d-1. Annual CH4 emissions for this persistent filament were estimated at 0.77 ± 0.64 Gg which equates to a maximum of 0.35% of the global oceanic budget. This raises the known outgassing intensity of this area and highlights the importance of advecting filaments from upwelling waters as efficient vehicles for air-sea exchange.

Marine snow studies in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean: distribution, composition and role as a food source for migrating plankton

During a 25 d Lagrangian study in May and June 1990 in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean, marine snow aggregates were collected using a novel water bottle, and the composition was determined microscopically. The aggregates contained a characteristic signature of a matrix of bacteria, cyanobacteria and autotrophic picoplankton with inter alia inclusions of the tintiniid Dictyocysta elegans and large pennate diatoms. The concentration of bacteria and cyanobacteria was much greater on the aggregates than when free-living by factors of 100 to 6000 and 3000 to 2 500 000, respectively, depending on depth. Various species of crustacean plankton and micronekton were collected, and the faecal pellets produced after capture were examined. These often contained the marine snow signature, indicating that these organisms had been consuming marine snow. In some cases, marine snow material appeared to dominate the diet. This implies a food-chain short cut wherby material, normally too small to be consumed by the mesozooplankton, and considered to constitute the diet of the microplankton can become part of the diet of organisms higher in the food-chain. The micronekton was dominated by the amphipod Themisto compressa, whose pellets also contained the marine snow signature. Shipboard incubation experiments with this species indicated that (1) it does consume marine snow, and (2) its gut-passage time is sufficiently long for material it has eaten in the upper water to be defecated at its day-time depth of several hundred meters. Plankton and micronekton were collected with nets to examine their vertical distribution and diel migration and to put into context the significance of the flux of material in the guts of migrants. “Gut flux” for the T. compressa population was calculated to be up to 2% of the flux measured simultaneously by drifting sediment traps and <5% when all migrants are considered. The in situ abundance and distribution of marine snow aggregates (>0.6 mm) was examined photographically. A sharp concentration peak was usually encountered in the depth range 40 to 80 m which was not associated with peaks of in situ fluorescence or attenuation but was just below or at the base of the upper mixed layer. The feeding behaviour of zooplankton and nekton may influence these concentration gradients to a considerable extent, and hence affect the flux due to passive settling of marine snow aggregates.

Volcanic ash supply to the surface ocean – remote sensing of biological responses and their wider biogeochemical significance

Transient micronutrient enrichment of the surface ocean can enhance phytoplankton growth rates and alter microbial community structure with an ensuing spectrum of biogeochemical feedbacks. Strong phytoplankton responses to micronutrients supplied by volcanic ash have been reported recently. Here we: (i) synthesize findings from these recent studies; (ii) report the results of a new remote sensing study of ash fertilization; and (iii) calculate theoretical bounds of ash-fertilized carbon export. Our synthesis highlights that phytoplankton responses to ash do not always simply mimic that of iron amendment; the exact mechanisms for this are likely biogeochemically important but are not yet well understood. Inherent optical properties of ash-loaded seawater suggest rhyolitic ash biases routine satellite chlorophyll-a estimation upwards by more than an order of magnitude for waters with <0.1 mg chlorophyll-a m-3, and less than a factor of 2 for systems with >0.5 mg chlorophyll-a m-3. For this reason post-ash-deposition chlorophyll-a changes in oligotrophic waters detected via standard Case 1 (open ocean) algorithms should be interpreted with caution. Remote sensing analysis of historic events with a bias less than a factor of 2 provided limited stand-alone evidence for ash-fertilization. Confounding factors were poor coverage, incoherent ash dispersal, and ambiguity ascribing biomass changes to ash supply over other potential drivers. Using current estimates of iron release and carbon export efficiencies, uncertainty bounds of ash-fertilized carbon export for 3 events are presented. Patagonian iron supply to the Southern Ocean from volcanic eruptions is less than that of windblown dust on thousand year timescales but can dominate supply at shorter timescales. Reducing uncertainties in remote sensing of phytoplankton response and nutrient release from ash are avenues for enabling assessment of the oceanic response to large-scale transient nutrient enrichment.

Probabilistic Models to Describe the Dynamics of Migrating Microbial Communities

In all but the most sterile environments bacteria will reside in fluid being transported through conduits and some of these will attach and grow as biofilms on the conduit walls. The concentration and diversity of bacteria in the fluid at the point of delivery will be a mix of those when it entered the conduit and those that have become entrained into the flow due to seeding from biofilms. Examples include fluids through conduits such as drinking water pipe networks, endotracheal tubes, catheters and ventilation systems. Here we present two probabilistic models to describe changes in the composition of bulk fluid microbial communities as they are transported through a conduit whilst exposed to biofilm communities. The first (discrete) model simulates absolute numbers of individual cells, whereas the other (continuous) model simulates the relative abundance of taxa in the bulk fluid. The discrete model is founded on a birth-death process whereby the community changes one individual at a time and the numbers of cells in the system can vary. The continuous model is a stochastic differential equation derived from the discrete model and can also accommodate changes in the carrying capacity of the bulk fluid. These models provide a novel Lagrangian framework to investigate and predict the dynamics of migrating microbial communities. In this paper we compare the two models, discuss their merits, possible applications and present simulation results in the context of drinking water distribution systems. Our results provide novel insight into the effects of stochastic dynamics on the composition of non-stationary microbial communities that are exposed to biofilms and provides a new avenue for modelling microbial dynamics in systems where fluids are being transported.

Drifter observations in the summer time Bay of Biscay slope current

During the summer of 2012, 20 surface drifters drogued at 50 m depth were deployed on the continental slope to the north of the Bay of Biscay. Initially after release the drifters all crossed the slope, with 14 continuing equatorward, parallel to the slope following an absolute dynamic topography feature and 6 returning to the slope, in an eddy, visible in chlorophyll-a maps. Lagrangian statistics show an anisotropic flow field that becomes less tied to the absolute dynamic topography and increasingly dominated by diffusion and eddy processes. A weaker tie to the absolute dynamic topography allowed for total of 8 of the drifters crossed from the deep water onto the shelf, showing pathways for flow across the slope. A combination of drifter trajectories, absolute dynamic topography and chlorophyll-a concentration maps have been used to show that small anticyclonic eddies, tied to the complex slope topography provide a mechanism for on shelf transport. During the summer, the presence of these eddies can be seen in surface chlorophyll-a maps.

Drifter observations in the summer time Bay of Biscay slope current

During the summer of 2012, 20 surface drifters drogued at 50 m depth were deployed on the continental slope to the north of the Bay of Biscay. Initially after release the drifters all crossed the slope, with 14 continuing equatorward, parallel to the slope following an absolute dynamic topography feature and 6 returning to the slope, in an eddy, visible in chlorophyll-a maps. Lagrangian statistics show an anisotropic flow field that becomes less tied to the absolute dynamic topography and increasingly dominated by diffusion and eddy processes. A weaker tie to the absolute dynamic topography allowed for total of 8 of the drifters crossed from the deep water onto the shelf, showing pathways for flow across the slope. A combination of drifter trajectories, absolute dynamic topography and chlorophyll-a concentration maps have been used to show that small anticyclonic eddies, tied to the complex slope topography provide a mechanism for on shelf transport. During the summer, the presence of these eddies can be seen in surface chlorophyll-a maps.