Inorganic-organic hybrid polymers: Solution-processible coating materials for defined surface functionalization

A new class of inorganic-organic hybrid polymers could successfully been prepared by the combination of different polymerization techniques. The access to a broad range of organic polymers incorporated into the hybrid polymer was realized using two independent approaches.rnIn the first approach a functional poly(silsesquioxane) (PSSQ) network was pre-formed, which was capable to initiate a controlled radical polymerization to graft organic vinyl-type monomers from the PSSQ precursor. As controlled radical polymerization techniques atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), as well as reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization could be used after defined tuning of the PSSQ precursor either toward a PSSQ macro-initiator or to a PSSQ macro-chain-transfer-agent. The polymerization pathway, consisting of polycondensation of trialkoxy-silanes followed by grafting-from polymerization of different monomers, allowed synthesis of various functional hybrid polymers. A controlled synthesis of the PSSQ precursors could successfully be performed using a microreactor setup; the molecular weight could be adjusted easily while the polydispersity index could be decreased well below 2.rnThe second approach aimed to incorporate differently derived organic polymers. As examples, polycarbonate and poly(ethylene glycol) were end-group-modified using trialkoxysilanes. After end-group-functionalization these organic polymers could be incorporated into a PSSQ network.rnThese different hybrid polymers showed extraordinary coating abilities. All polymers could be processed from solution by spin-coating or dip-coating. The high amount of reactive silanol moieties in the PSSQ part could be cross-linked after application by annealing at 130° for 1h. Not only cross-linking of the whole film was achieved, which resulted in mechanical interlocking with the substrate, also chemical bonds to metal or metal oxide surfaces were formed. All coating materials showed high stability and adhesion onto various underlying materials, reaching from metals (like steel or gold) and metal oxides (like glass) to plastics (like polycarbonate or polytetrafluoroethylene).rnAs the material and the synthetic pathway were very tolerant toward different functionalities, various functional monomers could be incorporated in the final coating material. The incorporation of N-isopropylacrylamide yielded in temperature-responsive surface coatings, whereas the incorporation of redox-active monomers allowed the preparation of semi-conductive coatings, capable to produce smooth hole-injection layers on transparent conductive electrodes used in optoelectronic devices.rnThe range of possible applications could be increased tremendously by incorporation of reactive monomers, capable to undergo fast and quantitative conversions by polymer-analogous reactions. For example, grafting active esters from a PSSQ precursor yielded a reactive surface coating after application onto numerous substrates. Just by dipping the coated substrate into a solution of a functionalized amine, the desired function could be immobilized at the interface as well as throughout the whole film. The obtained reactive surface coatings could be used as basis for different functional coatings for various applications. The conversion with specifically tuned amines yielded in surfaces with adjustable wetting behaviors, switchable wetting behaviors or as recognition element for surface-oriented bio-analytical devices. The combination of hybrid materials with orthogonal reactivities allowed for the first time the preparation of multi-reactive surfaces which could be functionalized sequentially with defined fractions of different groups at the interface. rnThe introduced concept to synthesis functional hybrid polymers unifies the main requirements on an ideal coating material. Strong adhesion on a wide range of underlying materials was achieved by secondary condensation of the PSSQ part, whereas the organic part allowed incorporation of various functionalities. Thus, a flexible platform to create functional and reactive surface coatings was achieved, which could be applied to different substrates. rn

Untersuchungen zur asymmetrischen Totalsynthese von Cripowellin

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnten wichtige Schritte auf dem Weg zur asymmetrischen Totalsynthese des Cripowellin-Aglycons gemacht und wichtige Erkenntnisse gewonnen werden. Es gelang dabei, einen Teil des Grundgerüsts des Kerns mit dem entscheidenden stereogenen Zentrum optisch aktiv aufzubauen. Die Aza-Claisen-Umlagerung diente hierbei als Schlüsselschritt zum stereoselektiven Aufbau eines Epoxids. Für die Aza-Claisen-Umlagerung dienten ein Allylamin und ein Säurefluorid als Ausgangsverbindungen. Das Allylamin konnte ausgehend von Piperonylalkohol über sechs Stufen (Schutzgruppen-operationen, Bromierung, metallorganische Reaktionen, Reduktion) mit einem Auxliar versehen und mit einer Gesamtausbeute von 56 % synthetisiert werden. Die Synthese des Säurefluorids konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit entscheidend verbessert werden, insbesondere bezüglich der Reinheit. Die Aza-Claisen-Umlagerung zu einem Pentensäurederivat selbst konnte mit einer sehr befriedigenden Ausbeute von 91 % durchgeführt werden. Dabei entstanden zwei Diastereomere im Verhältnis 92:8. Kristallisationsversuche schlugen leider fehl, sodass der Konfigurationsbeweis noch aussteht. Dieses Pentensäurederivat konnte zunächst durch einen Reduktionsschritt und saure Abspaltung der Schutzgruppe und des Auxiliars in ein Benzylchlorid überführt werden, welches dann durch Umsetzung mit Ammoniak zu einem Benzazepinon reagierte, ein weiteres wichtiges Schlüsselintermediat in dieser Synthese. Mit diesem Benzazepinon wurden viele Versuche zur Doppelbindungsfunk-tionalisierung unternommen, so z. B. Dihydroxylierungen und Epoxidierungen. Auch wurde das Amid zum Amin reduziert und mit Pentensäure erneut funktionalisiert. Mit dem so gewonnenen Dien wurden erste Versuche unternommen, über eine Grubbs-Metathese das bicyclische System des Cripowellins aufzubauen, die jedoch scheiterten.

Polymer brushes - Wetting properties and my-patterning

In this work polymer brushes on both flat and curved substrates were prepared by grafting from and grafting to techniques. The brushes on flat substrates were patterned on the µm-scale with the use of an inkjet printer. Thus it was demonstrated that chemistry with an inkjet printer is feasible. The inkjet printer was used to deposit microdroplets of acid. The saponification of surface-immobilized ATRP initiators containing an ester bond occurred in these microdroplets. The changes in the monolayer of ester molecules due to saponification were amplified by SI-ATRP. It was possible to correlate the polymer brush thickness to effectiveness of saponification. The use of an inkjet printer allowed for simultaneously screening of parameters such as type of acid, concentration of acid, and contact time between acid and surface. A dip-coater was utilized in order to test the saponification independent of droplet evaporation. The advantage of this developed process is its versatility. It can be applied to all surface-immobilized initiators containing ester bonds. The technique has additionally been used to selectively defunctionalize the initiator molecules covering a microcantilever on one side of a cantilever. An asymmetric coating of the cantilever with polymer brushes was thus generated. An asymmetric coating allows the use of a microcantilever for sensing applications. The preparation of nanocomposites comprised of polyorganosiloxane microgel particles functionalized with poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA) brushes and linear, but entangled, PEMA chains is described in the second major part of this thesis. Measurement of the interparticle distance was performed using scanning probe microscopy and grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering. The matrix molecular weight at which the nanocomposite showed microphase separation was related to abrupt changes in inter-particle distance. Microphase separation occurred once the matrix molecular exceeded the molecular weight of the brushes. The trigger for the microphase separation was a contraction of the polymer brushes, as the measurements of inter-particle distance have revealed. The brushes became impenetrable for the matrix chains upon contraction and thus behaved as hard spheres. The contraction led to a loss of anchoring between particles and matrix, as shown by nanowear tests using an atomic force microscope. Polyorganosiloxane microgel particles were functionalized with 13C enriched poly(ethyl methacrylate) brushes. New synthetic pathways were developed in order to enrich not the entire brush with 13C, but only exclusively selected regions. 13C chemical shift anisotropy, an advanced NMR technique, can thus be used in order to gather information about the extended conformations in the 13C enriched regions of the PEMA chains immobilized on the µ-gel-g-PEMA particles. The third part of this thesis deals with the grafting to of polymeric fullerene materials on silicon substrates. Active ester chemistry was employed in order to prepare the polymeric fullerene materials and graft these materials covalently on amino-functionalized silicon substrates.rn

Synthese organisch-anorganischer Hybridmaterialien in Mehrkomponenten-Lösungsmittelsystemen

Die Funktionalisierung anorganischer Nanopartikel stellt einen Schlüsselschritt in der Herstellung von Nanokompositen dar. Nanokomposite erzielen ein wachsendes Interesse im Bereich der Polymer- und der Materialwissenschaften, da die Kombination mehrerer Materialien mit unterschiedlichen Eigenschaften, wie etwa die Kombination anorganischer Nanopartikel mit Polymeren, große Synergieeffekte erhoffen lässt.rnrnDer Einbau anorganischer Nanopartikel in polymere Matrixmaterialien zur Verbesserung oder Einführung mechanischer, optischer oder magnetischer Eigenschaften von Polymeren bedarf allerdings der Modifizierung der Oberfläche des anorganischen Materials, um die für die positiven Synergieeffekte essentielle Kompatibilität zwischen Füllstoff und Matrix zu erreichen.rnrnEine Vielzahl anorganischer Partikel ist bereits als wässrige Dispersion erhältlich (SiO2, Al2O3, CeO2, ZrO2, ...). Mehrkomponenten- Lösungsmittelsysteme ermöglichen den Transfer dieser Partikel in eine unpolare Umgebung und gleichzeitig deren Funktionalisierung mit amphiphilen Copolymeren. Aufgrund der reversiblen Schaltbarkeit dieser Lösungsmittelsysteme zwischen einem einphasigen und zweiphasigen Zustand werden die zu Beginn in zwei nichtmischbaren Phasen vorliegenden Reaktionspartner durch Übergang in einen einphasigen Zustand unter homogenen Bedingungen in Kontakt gebracht und durch eine erneute Phasentrennung isoliert.rnEin weiterer Vorteil dieser Lösungsmittelsysteme ist deren Tolerierung funktioneller Gruppen in den verwendeten amphiphilen Copolymeren, welche nicht in Wechselwirkung mit der Partikeloberfläche stehen. Beispielsweise können Amine in den amphiphilen Copolymeren für die Wechselwirkung der funktionalisierten Partikel mit einer Polyurethanmatrix dienen, Alkine können mittels einer 1,3-dipolaren Cycloaddition umgesetzt werden oder aber perfluorierten Seitenketten in den Seitenketten der amphiphilen Copolymere die Kompatibilisierung der funktionalisierten Partikel mit einem perfluorierten Polymer gewährleisten.

Structured antibody surfaces for bio-recognition and a label-free detection of bacteria

Antibody microarrays are of great research interest because of their potential application as biosensors for high-throughput protein and pathogen screening technologies. In this active area, there is still a need for novel structures and assemblies providing insight in binding interactions such as spherical and annulus-shaped protein structures, e.g. for the utilization of curved surfaces for the enhanced protein-protein interactions and detection of antigens. Therefore, the goal of the presented work was to establish a new technique for the label-free detection of bio-molecules and bacteria on topographically structured surfaces, suitable for antibody binding.rnIn the first part of the presented thesis, the fabrication of monolayers of inverse opals with 10 μm diameter and the immobilization of antibodies on their interior surface is described. For this purpose, several established methods for the linking of antibodies to glass, including Schiff bases, EDC/S-NHS chemistry and the biotin-streptavidin affinity system, were tested. The employed methods included immunofluorescence and image analysis by phase contrast microscopy. It could be shown that these methods were not successful in terms of antibody immobilization and adjacent bacteria binding. Hence, a method based on the application of an active-ester-silane was introduced. It showed promising results but also the need for further analysis. Especially the search for alternative antibodies addressing other antigens on the exterior of bacteria will be sought-after in the future.rnAs a consequence of the ability to control antibody-functionalized surfaces, a new technique employing colloidal templating to yield large scale (~cm2) 2D arrays of antibodies against E. coli K12, eGFP and human integrin αvβ3 on a versatile useful glass surface is presented. The antibodies were swept to reside around the templating microspheres during solution drying, and physisorbed on the glass. After removing the microspheres, the formation of annuli-shaped antibody structures was observed. The preserved antibody structure and functionality is shown by binding the specific antigens and secondary antibodies. The improved detection of specific bacteria from a crude solution compared to conventional “flat” antibody surfaces and the setting up of an integrin-binding platform for targeted recognition and surface interactions of eukaryotic cells is demonstrated. The structures were investigated by atomic force, confocal and fluorescence microscopy. Operational parameters like drying time, temperature, humidity and surfactants were optimized to obtain a stable antibody structure.

Studio approfondito di processi post-polimerizzazione del poli(glicidil metacrilato)

The reactivty of poly(glycidyl methacrylate), obtained by RAFT controlled radical polymerization, has been investigated with a nucelophilic agent, such as morpholine, in various aprotic polar solvents in order to optimize the reaction (time and nucleophile excess). A strong interaction between polymer and solvent, gained by hydrogen bonds, during the process has proved to be essential in order to lower the reaction time and the nucelophilic agent excess. Dissimilar behaviors have been detected by GPC analysis due to the reactivity of the sulfhydryl formed during the RAFT's aminolysis. The various solvents lead to conditions in which different inter and intra-chain associations occur; the result is the formation of dimers, trimers and tetramers (to a less extent) in the first case, and cyclical structures in the second one. The reactivity of the hydroxy group, formed during the ring opening reaction, has been further investigated in order to link isothiocyanate-functionalized fluorescent marker along the polymeric chain.

Lipophilic nucleosides: studies toward self-assembled functional materials

Molecular self-assembly takes advantage of supramolecular non-covalent interactions (ionic, hydrophobic, van der Waals, hydrogen and coordination bonds) for the construction of organized and tunable systems. In this field, lipophilic guanosines can represent powerful building blocks thanks to their aggregation proprieties in organic solvents, which can be controlled by addition or removal of cations. For example, potassium ion can template the formation of piled G-quartets structures, while in its absence ribbon-like G aggregates are generated in solution. In this thesis we explored the possibility of using guanosines as scaffolds to direct the construction of ordered and self-assembled architectures, one of the main goals of bottom-up approach in nanotechnology. In Chapter III we will describe Langmuir-Blodgett films obtained from guanosines and other lipophilic nucleosides, revealing the “special” behavior of guanine in comparison with the other nucleobases. In Chapter IV we will report the synthesis of several thiophene-functionalized guanosines and the studies towards their possible use in organic electronics: the pre-programmed organization of terthiophene residues in ribbon aggregates could allow charge conduction through π-π stacked oligothiophene functionalities. The construction and the behavior of some simple electronic nanodevices based on these organized thiopehene-guanosine hybrids has been explored.

Polimeri tiofenici funzionali e loro applicazioni nel fotovoltaico

Recentemente, sempre più attenzione è stata rivolta all' utilizzo di coloranti organici come assorbitori di luce per la preparazione di strati fotoattivi in celle solari organiche (OPV). I coloranti organici presentano un'elevata abilità nella cattura della luce solare grazie all'elevato coefficiente di estinzione molare e buone proprietà fotofisiche. Per questi motivi sono eccellenti candidati per l'incremento della conversione fotoelettrica in OPV. In questa tesi viene descritta una nuova strategia per l'incorporazione di derivati porfirinici in catena laterale a copolimeri tiofenici. Gli studi svolti hanno dimostrato che poli(3-bromoesil)tiofene può essere variamente funzionalizzato con idrossitetrafenilporfirina (TPPOH), per l'ottenimento di copolimeri utilizzabili come materiali p-donatori nella realizzazione di OPV. I copolimeri poli[3-(6-bromoesil)tiofene-co-(3-[5-(4-fenossi)-10,15,20-trifenilporfirinil]esil tiofene] P[T6Br-co-T6TPP] contenenti differenti quantità di porfirina, sono stati sintetizzati sia con metodi non regiospecifici che regiospecifici, con lo scopo di confrontarene le proprietà e di verificare se la strutture macromolecolare che presenta una regiochimica di sostituzione sempre uguale, promuove o meno il trasporto della carica elettrica, migliorando di conseguenza l'efficienza. E' stato inoltre effettuato un ulteriore confronto tra questi derivati e derivati simili P[T6H-co-T6TPP] che non contengono l'atomo di bromo in catena laterale con lo scopo di verificare se l'assenza del gruppo reattivo, migliora o meno la stabilità termica e chimica dei film polimerici, agendo favorevolmete sulle performance dei dispositivi fotovoltaici. Tutti i copolimeri sono stati caratterizzati con differenti tecniche: spettroscopia NMR, FT-IR e UV-Vis, analisi termiche DSC e TGA, e GPC. Le celle solari Bulk Heterojunction, preparate utilizzando PCBM come materiale elettron-accettore e i copolimeri come materilai elettron-donatori, sono state testate utilizzando un multimetro Keithley e il Solar Simulator.

Charge transport properties of organic conjugated polymers for photovoltaic applications

Charge transport in conjugated polymers as well as in bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells made of blends between conjugated polymers, as electron-donors (D), and fullerenes, as electron-acceptors (A), has been investigated. It is shown how charge carrier mobility of a series of anthracene-containing poly(p-phenylene-ethynylene)-alt-poly(p-phenylene-vinylene)s (AnE-PVs) is highly dependent on the lateral chain of the polymers, on a moderate variation of the macromolecular parameters (molecular weight and polydispersity), and on the processing conditions of the films. For the first time, the good ambipolar transport properties of this relevant class of conjugated polymers have been demonstrated, consistent with the high delocalization of both the frontier molecular orbitals. Charge transport is one of the key parameters in the operation of BHJ solar cells and depends both on charge carrier mobility in pristine materials and on the nanoscale morphology of the D/A blend, as proved by the results here reported. A straight correlation between hole mobility in pristine AnE-PVs and the fill factor of the related solar cells has been found. The great impact of charge transport for the performance of BHJ solar cells is clearly demonstrated by the results obtained on BHJ solar cells made of neat-C70, instead of the common soluble fullerene derivatives (PCBM or PC70BM). The investigation of neat-C70 solar cells was motivated by the extremely low cost of non-functionalized fullerenes, compared with that of their soluble derivatives (about one-tenth). For these cells, an improper morphology of the blend leads to a deterioration of charge carrier mobility, which, in turn, increases charge carrier recombination. Thanks to the appropriate choice of the donor component, solar cells made of neat-C70 exhibiting an efficiency of 4.22% have been realized, with an efficiency loss of just 12% with respect to the counterpart made with costly PC70BM.

Polymerisation in perfluorierter Emulsion

Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt die Polymerisation in nicht-wässrigen Emulsionen – bestehend aus einem perfluorierten Solvens und einem Kohlenwasserstoff - unter Einsatz verschiedener Monomere, Katalysatoren und Polymeristionsmethoden zur Generierung von Polymerpartikeln verschiedenster Art. Es wurde gezeigt, dass in diesen inerten Medien zahlreiche Methoden zur Polymererzeugung unter gleichzeitiger Morphologiekontrolle eingesetzt werden können, die in konventionellen wässrigen, heterophasischen Systemen versagen.rnrnAusgangspunkt war die literaturbekannte Metallocen-katalysierte Synthese von Polyethylen (PE)- und Polypropylen (PP)-Nanopartikeln in perfluorierter Emulsion in Gegenwart hochmolekularer Blockcopolymere als Stabilisierungsagens. Mithilfe kinetischer Untersuchungen hinsichtlich der PE-Synthese wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ein Modell entwickelt, welches den Diffusionsweg eines gasförmigen Monomers über die verschiedenen Phasengrenzen hinweg zum aktiven katalytischen Zentrum in der dispergierten Phase beschreibt. Ferner konnte die Diffusions- und Reaktionsbestimmtheit der Reaktion in Abhängigkeit verschiedener Reaktionsparameter nachgewiesen sowie ein tieferer Einblick über den Ort der Polymerisation in den heterophasischen Systemen erhalten werden.rnrnDie so gewonnenen Erkenntnisse wurden für die erfolgreiche Synthese von Poly(ethylen-1-hexen)-Copolymeren in perfluorierter Emulsion genutzt, wobei der Comonomergehalt im resultierenden Polymer über einen breiten Bereich variiert werden konnte. Neben der Homo- und Copolymerisation von Polyolefinen wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit weiter gezeigt, dass die heterogenen Fluide zum Aufbau komplexerer Morphologien wie Kern-Schale-Nanopartikeln genutzt werden können; so gelangte man zu Partikeln mit Kernen aus isotaktischem PP, ummantelt von „weichem“ Poly(n-butylacrylat).rnrnEin weiterer Fokus dieser Arbeit lag auf der Erweiterung der Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der perfluorierten Emulsionen, und so wurde bspw. der Zugang zu Polymerdispersionen aus konjugierten Materialien mit Partikeldurchmessern von 70-100 nm mittels Cyclopolymerisation eröffnet. Ferner konnten als bioverträgliche und biologisch abbaubare Materialien Partikel aus epsilon-Caprolacton in koordinativ-anionischer Polymerisation gewonnen werden. Im Zuge dessen wurden Emulgatoren entwickelt, die den Einsatz polarer Monomere in perfluorierter Emulsion erlauben.rnrnSchlussendlich konnten mittels trifunktioneller Polymere mit lipophilen und fluorophilen Gruppen sowie Lewis-basischen Ankergruppen Ag- und Cu-Partikel dergestalt oberflächenmodifiziert werden, dass ein homogenes Einbetten in eine perfluorierte Matrix möglich war, was antibakterielle perfluorierte Werkstoffe - erwiesen an E. coli - lieferte.

Direct electron transfer to cytochrome c oxidase investigated by electrochemistry and time-resolved surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy

Cytochrom c Oxidase (CcO), der Komplex IV der Atmungskette, ist eine der Häm-Kupfer enthaltenden Oxidasen und hat eine wichtige Funktion im Zellmetabolismus. Das Enzym enthält vier prosthetische Gruppen und befindet sich in der inneren Membran von Mitochondrien und in der Zellmembran einiger aerober Bakterien. Die CcO katalysiert den Elektronentransfer (ET) von Cytochrom c zu O2, wobei die eigentliche Reaktion am binuklearen Zentrum (CuB-Häm a3) erfolgt. Bei der Reduktion von O2 zu zwei H2O werden vier Protonen verbraucht. Zudem werden vier Protonen über die Membran transportiert, wodurch eine elektrochemische Potentialdifferenz dieser Ionen zwischen Matrix und Intermembranphase entsteht. Trotz ihrer Wichtigkeit sind Membranproteine wie die CcO noch wenig untersucht, weshalb auch der Mechanismus der Atmungskette noch nicht vollständig aufgeklärt ist. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist, einen Beitrag zum Verständnis der Funktion der CcO zu leisten. Hierzu wurde die CcO aus Rhodobacter sphaeroides über einen His-Anker, der am C-Terminus der Untereinheit II angebracht wurde, an eine funktionalisierte Metallelektrode in definierter Orientierung gebunden. Der erste Elektronenakzeptor, das CuA, liegt dabei am nächsten zur Metalloberfläche. Dann wurde eine Doppelschicht aus Lipiden insitu zwischen die gebundenen Proteine eingefügt, was zur sog. proteingebundenen Lipid-Doppelschicht Membran (ptBLM) führt. Dabei musste die optimale Oberflächenkonzentration der gebundenen Proteine herausgefunden werden. Elektrochemische Impedanzspektroskopie(EIS), Oberflächenplasmonenresonanzspektroskopie (SPR) und zyklische Voltammetrie (CV) wurden angewandt um die Aktivität der CcO als Funktion der Packungsdichte zu charakterisieren. Der Hauptteil der Arbeit betrifft die Untersuchung des direkten ET zur CcO unter anaeroben Bedingungen. Die Kombination aus zeitaufgelöster oberflächenverstärkter Infrarot-Absorptionsspektroskopie (tr-SEIRAS) und Elektrochemie hat sich dafür als besonders geeignet erwiesen. In einer ersten Studie wurde der ET mit Hilfe von fast scan CV untersucht, wobei CVs von nicht-aktivierter sowie aktivierter CcO mit verschiedenen Vorschubgeschwindigkeiten gemessen wurden. Die aktivierte Form wurde nach dem katalytischen Umsatz des Proteins in Anwesenheit von O2 erhalten. Ein vier-ET-modell wurde entwickelt um die CVs zu analysieren. Die Methode erlaubt zwischen dem Mechanismus des sequentiellen und des unabhängigen ET zu den vier Zentren CuA, Häm a, Häm a3 und CuB zu unterscheiden. Zudem lassen sich die Standardredoxpotentiale und die kinetischen Koeffizienten des ET bestimmen. In einer zweiten Studie wurde tr-SEIRAS im step scan Modus angewandt. Dafür wurden Rechteckpulse an die CcO angelegt und SEIRAS im ART-Modus verwendet um Spektren bei definierten Zeitscheiben aufzunehmen. Aus diesen Spektren wurden einzelne Banden isoliert, die Veränderungen von Vibrationsmoden der Aminosäuren und Peptidgruppen in Abhängigkeit des Redoxzustands der Zentren zeigen. Aufgrund von Zuordnungen aus der Literatur, die durch potentiometrische Titration der CcO ermittelt wurden, konnten die Banden versuchsweise den Redoxzentren zugeordnet werden. Die Bandenflächen gegen die Zeit aufgetragen geben dann die Redox-Kinetik der Zentren wieder und wurden wiederum mit dem vier-ET-Modell ausgewertet. Die Ergebnisse beider Studien erlauben die Schlussfolgerung, dass der ET zur CcO in einer ptBLM mit größter Wahrscheinlichkeit dem sequentiellen Mechanismus folgt, was dem natürlichen ET von Cytochrom c zur CcO entspricht.

Silica-Supported Gold Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization and Reactivity

The main aim of this work was the synthesis and applications of functionalized-silica-supported gold nanoparticles. The silica-anchored functionalities employed, e.g. amine, alkynyl carbamate and sulfide moieties, possess a notable affinity with gold, so that they could be able to capture the gold precursor, to spontaneously reduce it (possibly at room temperature), and to stabilize the resulting gold nanoparticles. These new materials, potentially suitable for heterogeneous catalysis applications, could represent a breakthrough among the “green” synthesis of supported gold nanoparticles, since they would circumvent the addition of extra reducing agent and stabilizers, also allowing concomitant absorption of the active catalyst particles on the support immediately after spontaneous formation of gold nanoparticles. In chapter 4 of this thesis is also presented the work developed during a seven-months Marco Polo fellowship stay at the University of Lille (France), regarding nanoparticles nucleation and growth inside a microfluidic system and the study of the corresponding mechanism by in situ XANES spectroscopy. Finally, studies regarding the reparation and reactivity of gold decorated nanodiamonds are also described. Various methods of characterization have been used, such as ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM-FEG), X-ray Photoionization (XPS), X ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS).

Polymer-nanoparticle composites: from orientation phenomena to optoelectronic applications

Polymer-nanoparticle hybrids show synergistic effects, demonstrating both, the unique properties of nanosized structures and the good processability and functionalities of polymeric materials. This work shows the synthesis and application of block copolymers containing a soluble, functional block and a short anchor block, which efficiently binds to the surface of nanocrystals. We functionalized anisotropic, semiconducting nanoparticles, which can be dissolved in organic and polymeric matrices upon modification. The modified nanorods have the ability to form liquid crystalline phases, which behave similar to low molecular liquid crystals with a reversible clearing behaviour. These liquid crystalline phases could also be obtained in hole conducting matrices. For a macroscopic orientation of the nanorods, electric fields were applied and a switching (in analogy to known liquid crystals) to a homeotropic orientation was observed.rnBy introduction of dye molecules in the anchor block of a hole conducting block copolymer, all essential components of a solar cell can be combined in a single particle. Light absorption of the dye induces the injection of electrons into the particles, followed by a charging, that was monitored by a special AFM technique.rnLight emitting nanocrystals were functionalized analogously with a hole transporting polymer. The stability of the particles could be enhanced by the sterically stabilizing polymer corona and the particles showed improved properties in terms of processing. We applied these hybrid materials in light emitting devices, which showed better characteristics due to an improved hole injection and well dispersed emitting particles in the active device layer.rnThe work shows the broad spectrum of properties and applications based on the synergistic effects in hybrid and composite materials.