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稻属(Oryza L.)隶属于禾本科(Gramineae)Ehrhartoideae亚科的稻族(Oryzeae),包括两个栽培种(亚洲栽培稻O. sativa和非洲栽培稻O. glaberrima)和大约20多个野生种,广布于热带亚洲、非洲、大洋洲、中美洲和南美洲。药用野生稻复合体(O. officinalis complex)是稻属中最大、也是最复杂的一个复合体,共包括9个种,含有5种染色体组类型(B、C、BC、CD 和E)。作为栽培稻品质改良的重要基因库,药用野生稻复合体在稻属中具有重要的地位。但是,相似的形态和重叠的地理分布使部分物种的分类和鉴定一直较为困难;种内染色体组构成和倍性的不同更增加了分类鉴定的复杂性。这种情况阻碍了对这些野生稻遗传优势的有效利用。另外,由于物种间断分布和缺乏明确的二倍体亲本等原因,药用野生稻复合体内的异源多倍体起源一直存在争议。本文通过细胞核乙醇脱氢酶基因(Adh)和nrDNA的内转录间隔区(ITS)限制性片段长度多态性(RFLP)分析;叶绿体matK 基因、trnL 内含子和trnL-trnF 基因间隔区、核基因Adh和GPA1以及核糖体DNA ITS片段等序列比较的方法,对药用野生稻复合体中染色体组和物种的鉴定、种间系统发育关系,以及异源多倍体CCDD物种的起源和多倍体ITS的分子进化等进行了研究。主要研究结果如下: 1. 利用核Adh 基因限制性片段长度多态性,检测了来自国际水稻研究所基因库的64份药用野生稻复合体的样品。结果证明,所有O. rhizomatis样品都是含C染色体组的二倍体,所有O. minuta样品都是含BC 染色体组的四倍体。但是,种子库中鉴定为O. officinalis、O. punctata和O. eichingeri的样品中,同时都发现了含C染色体组的二倍体和含BC染色体组的四倍体。四倍体的O. officinalis只在印度分布,而且曾被描述为另一个种O. malampuzhaensis。 四倍体的O. punctata,也被一些学者称为O. schweinfurthiana,被发现和其二倍体一样分布广泛。值得注意的是,有两个曾被作为O. officinalis 四倍体的样品实际上是含有CD染色体组的物种O. latifolia。我们的结果增进了对国际水稻研究所种子库中部分野生稻样品染色体组构成的理解, 纠正了以往对药用野生稻复合体样品的错误鉴定,为今后进一步研究和利用这部分资源提供了种质编目的重要基础。 2. 对稻属中代表不同地理分布区的、含CD染色体组的11个样品(包括77个克隆)的ITS片段进行了测序。基于这些ITS序列的限制性片段长度多态性,提出一个快速而可靠的区分稻属CD 染色体组物种的方法。这个方法的具体步骤是:(1)利用通用引物扩增ITS 片段;(2)利用限制性内切酶FokI和/或DraⅢ消化PCR扩增产物;(3)用1%的琼脂糖胶电泳并根据消化产物的片段长度多态性来区分不同物种。 3. 利用包括两个叶绿体片段(matK和 trnL-trnF)、nrDNA内转录间隔区(ITS)和三个核基因(Adh1、Adh2和GPA1)的同源序列分析,探讨了药用野生稻复合体中二倍体物种和它们所代表的染色体组之间的系统发育关系。独立和合并的基因系统发育树都显示了一致的结果,即C染色体组和B染色体组的亲缘关系要比它们和E染色体组的近。三个含C染色体组的二倍体中,O. officinalis 和O. rhizomatis表现出较近的亲缘关系。值得注意的是,在O. eichingeri种内,尽管基于多基因的数据支持来自斯里兰卡的样品和来自非洲的样品聚成一个分支,但是较低的支持率表明, 两个地区的样品之间存在着较高的遗传分化。 4. 稻属中含CD染色体组的物种特产于拉丁美洲,包括O. alta、 O. grandiglumis 和O. latifolia。由于具有相同的染色体组类型、相似的形态特征和重叠的地理分布,这3个物种间的系统发育关系一直存在争论。另外,因为美洲大陆上没有含C和D染色体组的二倍体物种存在,对这些含CD染色体组物种的可能起源也有不同的假设被提出。使这个问题更具挑战性的是,尽管开展了世界范围的收集,至今仍没有找到含D 染色体组的二倍体物种。在本研究中,代表含C、CD和E染色体组以及含G染色体组的外类群共7个物种,共15份样品的2个叶绿体片段(matK和trnL-trnF)和3个核基因(Adh1,Adh2 和 GPA1)部分片段被测序。基于简约法、距离法和最大似然法的系统发育分析都充分支持含CD染色体组的物种起源于一次杂交事件的推论,并且显示,在物种形成时,含C染色体组的物种(O. officinalis 或O. rhizomatis 而非O. eichingeri)可能承担了母本,而含E染色体组的物种(O. australiensis)则可能承担了父本。另外,CCDD物种间非常一致的系统发育关系表明,非常大的分歧存在于 O. latifolia 和其它两个种(O. alta和O. grandiglumis)之间,这个结果倾向于将后两个种处理为同种或同种下不同分类群。 5. 基于178个克隆序列比较,探讨了ITS在稻属多倍体中的致同进化及其系统学意义。研究发现稻属异源四倍体的ITS存在不同形式的进化方式:首先,非洲BBCC四倍体O. eichingeri和O. punctata 的ITS片段同时保留了双亲拷贝,而且系统发育研究表明,二倍体的O. eichingeri和O. punctata 可能是这两个四倍体的直接祖先;其次,亚洲四倍体O. malampuzhaensis和O. minuta 的ITS仅定向保留母本ITS拷贝;另外,美洲CCDD四倍体的ITS序列发生了双向致同进化,即O. alta和O. grandiglumis的ITS位点一致化成C染色体组类型,而O. latifolia一致化成 D/E 染色体组类型。我们的研究进一步表明在利用ITS片段进行系统发育分析时,特别是涉及异源多倍体时必须慎重。 6. 利用栽培稻的微卫星引物,对含B/C染色体组的6个物种,157个体的SSR位点进行扩增。结果在这些亲缘关系稍远的野生稻中得到7个SSR位点,其中5个位点表现出多态性。比较BB、CC和BBCC物种SSR位点的每位点平均等位基因数A、多态位点百分率P和期望杂合度He ,3项指标发现,四倍体物种的遗传多样性,总体上要高于二倍体物种;二倍体物种内部,O. officnalis的遗传变异最大。另外,以遗传相关性为标准,讨论了B/C染色体组物种间的系统发育关系,同时推测了现存二倍体物种和4个BBCC四倍体物种的遗传关系。

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'Learning to learn' phenomena have been widely investigated in cognition, perception and more recently also in action. During concept learning tasks, for example, it has been suggested that characteristic features are abstracted from a set of examples with the consequence that learning of similar tasks is facilitated-a process termed 'learning to learn'. From a computational point of view such an extraction of invariants can be regarded as learning of an underlying structure. Here we review the evidence for structure learning as a 'learning to learn' mechanism, especially in sensorimotor control where the motor system has to adapt to variable environments. We review studies demonstrating that common features of variable environments are extracted during sensorimotor learning and exploited for efficient adaptation in novel tasks. We conclude that structure learning plays a fundamental role in skill learning and may underlie the unsurpassed flexibility and adaptability of the motor system.

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This report is the second in a series from a project to assess land-based sources of pollution (LBSP) and effects in the St. Thomas East End Reserves (STEER) in St. Thomas, USVI, and is the result of a collaborative effort between NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, the USVI Department of Planning and Natural Resources, the University of the Virgin Islands, and The Nature Conservancy. Passive water samplers (POCIS) were deployed in the STEER in February 2012. Developed by the US Geological Survey (USGS) as a tool to detect the presence of water soluble contaminants in the environment, POCIS samplers were deployed in the STEER at five locations. In addition to the February 2012 deployment, the results from an earlier POCIS deployment in May 2010 in Turpentine Gut, a perennial freshwater stream which drains to the STEER, are also reported. A total of 26 stormwater contaminants were detected at least once during the February 2012 deployment in the STEER. Detections were high enough to estimate ambient water concentrations for nine contaminants using USGS sampling rate values. From the May 2010 deployment in Turpentine Gut, 31 stormwater contaminants were detected, and ambient water concentrations could be estimated for 17 compounds. Ambient water concentrations were estimated for a number of contaminants including the detergent/surfactant metabolite 4-tert-octylphenol, phthalate ester plasticizers DEHP and DEP, bromoform, personal care products including menthol, indole, n,n-diethyltoluamide (DEET), along with the animal/plant sterol cholesterol, and the plant sterol beta-sitosterol. Only DEHP appeared to have exceeded a water quality guideline for the protection of aquatic organisms.